Stress and well-being at work: a literature review

Affiliation.

  • 1 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia. Rua Prof. Aristides Novis 197, Federação. 40210-630 Salvador BA Brasil. [email protected].
  • PMID: 32667554
  • DOI: 10.1590/1413-81232020257.27902017

Abstract in English, Portuguese

The study presents empirical evidence of the personal and contextual variables that protect against the negative effects of stress on workers' well-being and health. A systematic review of the literature of the last eleven years (2006 to 2016) was carried out in the Ebsco, LILACS, SciELO, Google Scholar, and PubMed databases, and in six Annual Reviews journals. Fifty national and international articles related to stress and well-being were analyzed. The results show that work-related factors, personal resources such as resilience, self-efficacy, emotional competencies, psychological detachment, work-life interface, and group-level factors have effects on well-being. The perceived social support of peers and managers, alongside autonomy at work, attenuate the negative impact of stress on well-being. It ends with suggestions for future studies to test relationships between variables that have not yet been explored and to deepen the understanding of the relationships between stress and well-being at work.

O estudo apresenta evidências empíricas das variáveis pessoais e contextuais protetoras dos efeitos negativos do estresse no bem-estar e na saúde dos trabalhadores. Realizou-se uma revisão sistemática da literatura dos últimos onze anos (2006 a 2016) nas bases de dados de Ebsco, LILACS, SciELO, Google acadêmico, PubMed, e em seis revistas do Annual Reviews. Foram analisados 50 artigos nacionais e internacionais relacionando estresse e bem-estar. Os resultados apontam que os fatores relacionados ao trabalho, os recursos pessoais como resiliência, autoeficácia, competências emocionais, desapego psicológico, a interface trabalho-vida pessoal e os fatores no nível de grupos têm efeitos no bem-estar. A percepção de suporte social de pares e da chefia ao lado da autonomia no trabalho, atenuam o impacto negativo do estresse sobre o bem-estar. Finaliza-se com sugestões de estudos futuros para testar relações entre variáveis ainda pouco exploradas e aprofundar a compreensão das relações entre estresse e bem-estar no trabalho.

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  • Systematic Review
  • Social Support*

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Human-Automation Interaction pp 79–96 Cite as

A Systematic Review of How Remote Work Affects Workplace Stress and Mental Health

  • Charles Guidarini 6 &
  • Omar Hussaein 6  
  • First Online: 15 December 2022

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Part of the Automation, Collaboration, & E-Services book series (ACES,volume 12)

Since the Coronavirus outbreak started, remote work has been an emerging phenomenon now more than ever. Unfortunately, with the emergence of remote work, mental health issues and increased stress levels have emerged as well. Teleworking has a significant emotional impact on employees as reports of negative emotions such as loneliness, irritation, worry, and guilt were more apparent than with office-workers (Mann and Holdsworth in N Technol Work Employ 18:196–211 [ 15 ]). In this paper, a systematic literature review of various scientific research papers have been conducted regarding the mentioned phenomenon by using the keywords; “Remote Work”, “Work from Home”, “Stress”, and “Mental Health” in three different databases; Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The analysis shown in the upcoming sections of this paper were performed by using software tools such as Harzing’s Publish or Perish to obtain the Metadata from Google Scholar, MAXQDA to obtain the word cloud that shows the most frequent terms in the articles analyzed, VOSviewer to obtain co-occurrence and co-citation cluster diagrams, Citespace to obtain the cluster analysis and citation burst, Vicinitas to obtain the emergence and engagement indicators, and Mendeley to generate a reference list for the articles used in this paper. After conducting the systematic literature review shown in this paper, it can be concluded that remote work has a direct impact on developing mental health issues and increased stress. Therefore, since this is an emerging issue, more research needs to be done to identify the exact reasons for the increased stress levels in individuals that work from home.

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Guidarini, C., Hussaein, O. (2023). A Systematic Review of How Remote Work Affects Workplace Stress and Mental Health. In: Duffy, V.G., Ziefle, M., Rau, PL.P., Tseng, M.M. (eds) Human-Automation Interaction. Automation, Collaboration, & E-Services, vol 12. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10788-7_5

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The nurses’ occupational stress components and outcomes, findings from an integrative review

Mihoka okuhara.

1 Department of Nursing, University Medical Hospital, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo Japan

2 Graduate School of Health Care Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo Japan

Yoshimi Kodama

3 School of Nursing and Rehabilitation Sciences, Showa University, Yokohama Japan

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To identify, evaluate and summarize the components, factors and outcomes of nurses’ occupational stress published between 2009–2019.

Integrative literature review.

A literature search was conducted on PubMed, CINAHL and PsycINFO databases for articles published in English, between 2009–2019.

The review included 132 studies. Most studies were conducted in the Confucian Asia and Anglo countries, but a growing number of studies were done in other countries. Almost all studies used a quantitative design, and changes in the use of scales indicated an increasing attention to career‐related components. Factors were categorized into sociodemographic, work environment and personal resources. Sociodemographic factors were inconsistent across countries. Outcomes were categorized into health status, capability, affective and behavioural responses to work, and organizational performance with generally consistent results. Model validation studies showed the non‐linear or non‐direct associations between stress and outcomes.

1. INTRODUCTION

Nurses' occupational stress has long been the subject of research and has been shown to be important for occupational health and safety purposes, as well as providing quality, effective care to patients. Occupational stressors and related factors for nurses may change over time reflecting factors such as developments in health care, changes in consumer relations, policy and regulatory modifications. In addition, the increase in nursing research in recent years and its geographical and cultural expansion may indicate new findings. Examining the changes that reflect the context is necessary to establish measures to meet the needs of nurses.

2. BACKGROUND

Occupational stress is an alarming worldwide phenomenon and has been a major public health problem. Occupational stress refers to the process by which stressors in the work environment lead to the development of psychological, behavioural or physiological strains that result in long‐term health effects, and is also known as work‐ or job‐related stress (Levy et al.,  2017 ). An expert survey conducted by the International Labour Organization (ILO) revealed that occupational stress is a worldwide problem that causes adverse personal and organizational outcomes, and a major concern in specific sectors, particularly in health care, education, services, finance, retail, transport and construction, and the public sector in general (International Labour Organization,  2016 ). Nurses, in particular, are known to experience high levels of occupational stress. According to a study conducted in the United Kingdom, nurses were among the three most stressful occupational groups (Health & Safety Executive,  2020 ). Occupational stress is known to be associated with physical and psychological illnesses, decreased performance, absenteeism, high staff turnover and decreased job satisfaction (Atkinson,  2004 ; Clegg,  2001 ; Richardson & Rothstein,  2008 ).

Stress is defined in many ways. According to Selye ( 1976 ), “stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it.” In this definition, “stress” denotes the reaction to stressful situations in biological terms. Later on, stress was addressed not only from a biological perspective but also from its psychological and social aspects; thus, its definition has been broader. Beehr and Newman ( 1978 ) defined occupational stress as “a situation wherein job‐related factors interact with a worker to change (i.e., disrupt or enhance) his or her psychological and/or physiological condition such that the person (i.e., mind‐body) is forced to deviate from normal functioning.” In the present study, we defined “occupational stress” as working environments or job characteristics to which the individuals are exposed, while reactions to stressful situations will be defined as “outcomes.”

Many studies on nurses’ occupational stress have been carried out in specific clinical areas (Edwards & Burnard,  2003 ), demographics (Shirey, 2006 ) and types, such as post‐traumatic stress (Chang et al.,  2005 ; Lambert & Lambert,  2001 ). These studies provide concrete and practical knowledge on the sources of stress and effective coping strategies that mitigate the challenges faced by nurses who share similar attributes. However, findings common to nurses that can be obtained without limiting the participant's area of expertise (e.g., emergency settings) or the participant's sociodemographic backgrounds (e.g., nurse managers, male nurses) are also important. Studies that provide a comprehensive overview of stress are needed to accumulate data and synthesize results into generalizable knowledge that is common and applicable to large populations, which can be used by organizations and governments in making policies and taking measures to mitigate stress (McVicar,  2003 ; Richardson,  2017 ).

Several literature reviews on occupational stress (Clegg,  2001 ; McVicar,  2003 ) were conducted in the early 2000s. However, there was a dearth of studies on the subject for over a decade that may have affected the accumulation of knowledge on changes in the healthcare system. In 2016, the International Labour Organization reported that there was growing attention regarding the assessment and management of occupational stress, and the design of legislation, strategies, and policies at international, regional, and national levels (International Labour Organization,  2016 ). Occupational stress and related factors for nurses may change over time, reflecting factors such as developments in health care and changes in consumer relations. Furthermore, the increase in nursing research in recent years with geographical and cultural reach may indicate new findings. Thus, a review of the findings of recent studies is needed to determine the implications for clinical management and future research of nurses’ occupational stress.

2.1. Research question

This study aimed to identify, evaluate and summarize the components, factors and outcomes of nurses’ occupational stress by reviewing studies published between 2009–2019. The guiding research questions were as follows: “What are the recently reported components, factors and outcomes of nurses’ occupational stress? Is there a change from past findings in reported components, factors and outcomes, and, if so, what are the reasons for these changes?”

3. THE STUDY

3.1. design.

We adopted an integrative review approach that is the broadest type of research review. The aim of an integrated review is to understand a phenomenon of concern fully allowing for the simultaneous inclusion of experimental and non‐experimental research (Whittemore & Knafl,  2005 ).

3.2. Method

3.2.1. search methods.

In June 2019, a literature search was conducted on PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) and PsycINFO databases using combinations of the following controlled terms: “Occupational Stress” (PubMed, Medical Subject Headings [MeSH] term), “Stress, Occupational” (CINAHL and PsycINFO, Subject Heading), and “Nurse*.” Articles published in English from 2009–2019 that reported on occupational stressors of nurses were considered for inclusion in the study.

The inclusion criteria were as follows: (a) original studies and written in English, (b) focused on occupational stressors in nurses and (c) did not limit to participants with specific sociodemographic backgrounds (e.g. male nurses only, or new graduate nurses only). The exclusion criteria were as follows: (a) focused on areas other than nurses’ occupational stressors, (b) the study was a literature review, (c) focused on participants working in specialties, (d) limited participants according to demographics, experience or positions, (e) duplicates, (f) grey literatures and (g) other reasons, such as not written in English.

3.2.2. Search outcomes

One researcher (MO) performed the original literature search and found 525 articles in PubMed, 1,510 articles in CINAHL and 1,051 articles in PsycINFO. Two researchers (MO and KS) further read and evaluated the titles of 2,611 articles after excluding duplicates. Subsequently, the abstracts of 373 articles were screened and matched against the inclusion criteria, resulting in 210 articles. After reviewing the full text of the 210 articles, 137 were identified and five were excluded based on the results of the quality appraisal; therefore, 132 articles were identified as relevant to the review. The list of articles was completed on 6 April 2020. Details of the screening process are shown in Figure  1 .

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Flow chart of search

3.2.3. Quality appraisal

The methodological quality of each article was assessed by two research members (KS and YK) independently using Standard Quality Assessment Criteria for Evaluating Primary Research Papers from a variety of fields (Kmet et al., 2004 ) known as a standard, empirically grounded quality assessment tool suitable for use with a variety of study designs in systematic review. A summary score to assess the quality of the article (range 0–1) where the higher the summary score, the better the quality of article was used for each article. The most common summary score for quantitative studies was in the 0.8 range, followed by the 0.9 range. The most common summary score for qualitative research was in the 0.6 range (Appendix 1 ). The inter‐rater agreement between the two reviewers' results was 75.0%, and items where disagreement occurred were discussed to determine the summary scores. Five articles with a summary score of less than 0.6 were excluded.

3.2.4. Data extraction and synthesis

Data from relevant articles were extracted by two researchers (MO and KS) in a tabular form under the following subheadings: name of the author(s), geographical location of the study, year of publication, purpose of the study, study design, study participants, methods, scales and subscales, results, and notes. Only data pertaining to nurses were extracted from articles that included non‐nurse occupations.

The data extracted were ordered, coded, categorized and summarized using a constant comparison approach, taking into account differences by region and country. The GLOBE study classification (House et al.  2004 ) was used to account for cultural and geographical differences. Initially, we planned to summarize the components, factors and outcomes of nurses’ occupational stress, but because there were a number of studies that validated models that included mediators and moderators, we additionally summarized the structural associations. A longitudinal design was applied in only nine studies.

3.3. Ethics

Ethical approval and patient consent was not required.

4.1. Methodological characteristics of the reviewed articles

Of the 132 articles Appendix 2 , 129 were quantitative in nature, while two used qualitative approaches and one used a mixed method approach. Almost all quantitative studies were cross‐sectional. A longitudinal design was applied in only nine studies.

4.2. Geographical and chronological characteristics of the reviewed articles

Table  1 shows the distribution of studies by year of publication and by country/cluster based on the classification of the GLOBE study (House et al.  2004 ). The majority of studies were conducted in the Confucian Asia cluster (27.5%), followed by Anglo (22.9%), Southern Asia (13.0%), Latin Europe (7.6%), Nordic Europe (6.9%), Latin America (6.1%), sub‐Saharan Africa (6.1%), Middle East (5.3%), Eastern Europe (2.3%) and Germanic Europe (1.5%). The overall number of studies on occupational stress among nurses is on the rise, attributed by the increased number of studies in Latin Europe, sub‐Saharan Africa, and South Asia.

Geographical location and publication year of the studies reviewed

4.3. Components of nurses’ occupational stress

The components included in nurses' occupational stress could be read from quantitative studies that measured stress and qualitative studies that explored stress. Most studies quantifying occupational stress measured it using a defined, reliable and validated scale, whereas other studies used scales of the authors' own design. Table  2 shows the subscales of the measurement scales with the reliability and validity that were used in the included literature as components of occupational stress. The subscales were categorized based on the classification by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Of the 32 scales identified, approximately 20% were designed to measure occupational stress related to nursing or healthcare professionalism and contained components that reflected role and relationship characteristics. Scales that were not nursing‐specific were sometimes used for the purpose of comparison with other professions.

Measuring instruments and components of occupational stress

‐Design of tasks: Heavy workload, infrequent rest breaks, long work hours and shiftwork; hectic and routine tasks that have little inherent meaning, do not utilize workers’ skills, and provide little sense of control

‐Management style: Lack of participation by workers in decision‐making, poor communication in the organization, lack of family‐friendly policies.

‐Interpersonal relationships: Poor social environment and lack of support or help from coworkers and supervisors.

‐Work roles: Conflicting or uncertain job expectations, too much responsibility, too many “hats to wear.”

‐Career concerns: Job insecurity and lack of opportunity for growth, advancement, or promotion; rapid changes for which workers are unprepared.

‐Environmental conditions: Unpleasant or dangerous physical conditions such as crowding, noise, air pollution, or ergonomic problems.

Of the 32 scales used in the studies, 18 were developed before the year 2000. Their subscales were mainly classified as design of tasks, management style, interpersonal relationships and work roles. Moreover, subscales of the scale developed after the year 2000 included the career concerns classification in addition to the aforementioned four, reflecting the change in focus that the researcher aimed to measure.

Two qualitative studies were both conducted at a single institution and were intended to explore nurses’ occupational stress related to the characteristics of a particular institution rather than to explore new components of nurses’ occupational stress. These studies revealed focused or detailed stress and discussed context‐specific stress and stress management.

4.4. Factors and outcomes of nurses’ occupational stress

Table  3 shows the factors influencing nurses’ occupational stress. Three types of factors were identified in the review: socio‐demographics, work environment and personal resources. For most socio‐demographics, the results were found to be inconsistent in relation to occupational stress. For work environment, results were generally consistent, but many overlaps were extracted with the components of the occupational stress measurement scales described. There were generally consistent results for personal resources, although the number of studies was small.

Factors influencing occupational stress

Table  4 shows the outcomes of nurses’ occupational stress. The outcomes are broadly categorized into health status, capability, affective and behavioural responses to work, and organizational performance, and the results of the examination of their association with occupational stress were generally consistent. The most commonly reported outcomes of occupational stress were burnout, intention to leave or stay, anxiety and depressive symptoms, and job satisfaction.

Outcomes of occupational stress

4.5. Structure of the relationship among concepts including nurses’ occupational stress

Forty‐five studies examined the structure of relationships among stress and two or more other concepts and contributed to providing a more complete picture of the phenomena surrounding nurses' occupational stress. These studies used statistical methods that could evaluate the entire model, such as structural equation modelling and tests for interaction effects.

Table  5 shows the relationships among stress and other concepts. The majority that positioned stress as an independent variable were broadly divided into two groups: those that included individual psychological characteristics as a moderator and assessed the buffering or accelerating effects on individual and organizational outcomes, and those that included stress response as a mediator and examined the process of influence on individual and organizational outcomes.

Structure of the relationship among concepts including occupational stress in a validated conceptual model

5. DISCUSSION

This review revealed that there is considerable knowledge on the components, factors and outcomes of occupational stress among nurses. Although studies on occupational stress have been conducted for a long time, a number of studies over the past 10 years indicated that it continues to be a challenge in nursing practice. Nurses’ occupational stress was found to be related to work characteristics and personal relationships, which reflects that nurses' work is complex, highly demanding, providing a combination of high levels of responsibility and low levels of authority (Sarafis et al.,  2016 ). It is consistent with the job stress model (the National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health,  1999 ) that personal attributes are related to occupational stress and that occupational stress leads to deterioration of physical and psychological states. The stress outcomes of behavioural change and performance decline at work can be environmental factors of stress for others, which may lead to a vicious cycle. In addition, this review showed the expansion of research into areas where there has been little research, development of new measures and constructs of stress, development of hypotheses and analyses leading to an increase in model testing, and emergence of intervention studies. These findings indicate that recent research on nurses’ occupational stress is evolving to reflect cultural diversity and changes in healthcare research that may lead to improvements in practice.

McVicar ( 2003 ) reviewed articles on nurses’ occupational stress published between 1985–2003. They identified workload, leadership and management, professional conflict, emotional labour, lack of reward, and shift work complications as significant sources of distress in nurses. Applying the categorization used in this review, major stressors can be categorized into task design, management style, interpersonal relationships and work roles. In the present review, the researchers included these categories as stressors to be measured, indicating that they continue to be considered major stressors. Additionally, the emergence of career concerns may be due to the increased recognition of occupational stress because of recent issues concerning workplace health (e.g., International Council of Nurses,  2007 ). Organizational administrators are particularly responsible for shaping a work environment that includes healthy career development. Thus, it is important to develop a short‐ and long‐term vision for the organization and present it to staff.

A comparison of the present review with that of McVicar ( 2003 ) demonstrates an increasing interest in the effects of personality on stress perception. McVicar ( 2003 ) implicated that a possible relationship between personality and stress perception exists; however, it was not presented as evidence. In contrast, the present review indicated that personality is considered by today's researchers as a personal resource of stress management. Moreover, recent studies have shown that personality is included in conceptual models as an independent, moderating or mediating variable. This may have been influenced by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Model of Job Stress (National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health,  1999 ), which showed the influence of individual factors on the relationship between stress and outcomes. In addition, the development of knowledge about personal resources has contributed to a general understanding of occupational stress among nurses. Some intervention studies included in this review found that the intervention programmes were effective in increasing personal resources (e.g., Hersch et al.,  2016 ). Addressing these interventions in tandem with work improvements to reduce stressor may be effective in creating a healthy work environment.

Furthermore, this review showed inconsistent results for one factor, socio‐demographics. Considering the expansion of the country in which the study was conducted, together with the fact that the results showed a certain trend due to classification based on cultural clusters, it is possible that the inconsistency of the results was due to diversification of the study context. For example, Nabirye et al. ( 2011 ) reported that higher education increases stress because of lack of clarity in the role and scheme of nurses with higher degrees in Uganda, which is different from previous studies. Thus, the nature and extent of the relationship between stressors and attributes may differ depending on culture, practices, healthcare systems and healthcare resources, and should be kept in mind when designing the study. In contrast, a similar trend in stress outcomes was found regardless of context. Future research could be developed more efficiently by assuming some degree of generalizability.

Lastly, this review showed that there was a lot of overlap between one of the factors, the work environment, and the components of occupational stress. There are two possible reasons for this: first, the conceptual definitions and frameworks may not be sufficiently organized; and second, there may be researchers’ focus on the linkages between the components. In either case, future research needs to examine the relationships among occupational stress and other concepts as a model rather than a single association. This is supported by the model validation studies included in this review, which demonstrate a structure involving mediators and moderators and suggest the non‐linear and non‐direct associations between stress and outcomes. Although the majority of the articles included in the review were in the high‐quality range, there were some articles in the medium‐ to low‐quality range, and it is important to further improve the quality of future studies. This review, as in the previous literature reviews, had few qualitative studies. Nurses' occupational stress is likely changing due to enormous changes in the environment, such as the coronavirus pandemic, and qualitative studies exploring nurses’ new stressors will be required. Furthermore, clarifying the association between improvement of nurses’ stress and patient outcomes will ensure the link between worker's health and safety and quality patient care.

5.1. Limitations

This review has a limited database and does not include grey literature, which may result in missing reports of non‐significant findings. However, the strength of this review is the large number of studies, which allowed us to extract trends over time and geography of the results, despite the limited period of 10 years.

6. CONCLUSION

A synthesis of the results of the literature presented components, factors and outcomes of nurses’ occupational stress, and identified recent changes such as a focus on career‐related components of stress, regional differences in factors, and the non‐linear or non‐direct associations between stress and outcomes. It was also shown that research on nurses’ occupational stress has developed in terms of both quality and quantity due to a recent increase in the number of studies, expansion of research settings, development of hypotheses and analysis, and enrichment of scales. Nursing managers can consider these changes in the work environment to reduce nurses' occupational stress and at the same time provide interventions to foster personal resources that act as a buffering moderator. In addition, nursing researchers will be able to design future research to contribute to clinical practice, in light of the recent trends presented in this study.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

There are no conflicts of interest to declare.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION

Design of the work: MO, KS; data collection: MO, KS; data analysis: MO, KS, YK; interpretation of data for the work: MO, KS, YK, drafting the work or revising: MO, KS, YK. All authors approved the final version for submission.

Supporting information

Appendix 1. Quality appraisal of 138 articles

Appendix 2. Articles included in the review

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Dr. Maiko Noguchi‐Watanabe for her great support. This research received no grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not‐for‐profit sectors.

Okuhara M, Sato K, Kodama Y. The nurses’ occupational stress components and outcomes, findings from an integrative review . Nurs Open . 2021; 8 :2153–2174. 10.1002/nop2.780 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

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paper cover thumbnail

A Systematic Literature Review of Work Stress

Profile image of richa burman

International Journal of Management Studies

To have a better understanding about the work stress, various definitions of stress and work stress has been compiled by different authors from year 1993 to 2017 (below in the ).

Related Papers

Umesh Maiya

Stress is much in the news at present but it isn't a new problem. Pressure is part and parcel of all work and helps to keep us motivated. But excessive pressure can lead to stress which undermines performance, is costly to employers and can make people ill. Research reveals that many working days are lost to stress, depression and anxiety. Work-related stress costs a huge burden to the society. Stress takes many forms as well as leading to anxiety and depression it can have a significant impact on an employee's physical health. Research links stress to heart disease, back pain, headaches, gastrointestinal disturbances and alcohol and drug dependency. Individuals are more willing to admit that they are suffering from stress if they can expect to be dealt with sympathetically. In some cases good counseling may be all that is needed. This paper aims at studying the stressors that affects an individual at work, to examine the effects of stress and suitable measures which employe...

literature review on stress at workplace

European Journal of Business and Management

Yara Hamdan

Euro Asia International Journals

, http://www.euroasiapub.org (An open access scholarly, peer-reviewed, interdisciplinary, monthly, and fully refereed journal.)

Dr Toopalli Sirisha

Stress is as a state of cerebral and poignant pressure or strain, caused by exigent state of affairs. It is a force that set of laws an individual's judgment and deeds. The major rationale of the study is to analyze the reasons for the stress of an individual to analyze the methods en route for overcome the stress of employees and to identify the consequences of stress. The need for the study is to recognize how the individual performs when stress echelon is high and how they are overcoming it. Job stress, within the framework of workplace health, refers to a physiological clause in which work-related duties and responsibilities become onerous and overwhelming to the point that it imposes detrimental effects on the mental and physical wellness of employees. The impact of stress in the workplace on the workers physical health, mental well-being and effectiveness in the workplace has been increasingly documented in recent years. In competitive era, tension and stress have become a part of a life. This study aspire to survey the factors causing stress, the collision of stress and identifying way for reducing stress by using Chi Square Test, ANOVA , Correlation and Regression tools.

Ebenezer Ofosuhene

This review of the literature gives information about work stress, factors in the working environment that cause stressful situations and negative health consequences of the workplace stress. Stressors are pointed out in details that lead to stress at the workplace. Approaches to the stress are explained and most famous models of the stress are assessed critically in this review. This article highlights the work stress and its adverse effects on the physical and mental health of an employee. Finally, recommendations for future research are given and areas are highlighted where there is need of more empirical research.

IJARIIE JOURNAL

Littera Scripta

Andrea Bencsik

Journal ijmr.net.in(UGC Approved)

The present paper is an attempt to understand the various factors which contributes for the stress in working environment. It a conceptual paper and for this purpose various secondary sources are included and also to some extent core group discussions conducted to validate the concept. The objective of the paper is to undertake the in depth study the effectiveness of stress management in work places. Through this paper we tried to conceptualize the stress in general.

Dr. T Seikhotinthang Haokip

Stress has been recognized as one of the major issues in the workplace. Stress refers to a state of psychological and physiological imbalance resulting from the difference between situational demand and the individual ability to meet those needs. The purpose of this study is to investigate the causes of stress and to highlight the consequences arise from stress. It also gives importance on the ways to measure and manage stress in the workplace. The study found that stress is a fact and indeed a common problem to any type of people but of the different types and it can be alleviate if one knows how to take good care of himself and his surroundings.

Economic Insights – Trends and Challenges

Babatunde Akanji

Given the complex nature of the concept - occupational stress (also known as work or job stress), it appears a daunting task reaching a unified definition of work stress because of the acknowledged fact that a singular approach may not be able to encompass the breadth of the phenomenon. To this end, the purpose of this paper is to provide a general review of some of the challenges surrounding the conceptuality of occupational stress in literature. Subsequently, the established knowledge regarding the nature and causes of occupational stress were examined in light of the conceptual typology of Murphy (1995) and Michie (2002) that portrays various sources of workplace stress which has been categorized as emanating from the context and content of work. These stress sources are consequentially known to produce dire organisational and extra-organisational outcomes such as low morale, poor performance, career uncertainty, absenteeism, health problems, work-life conflict, turnover and other reverses that undermine competitive objectives of business. As solutions, stress curative measures are discussed to assist managers to understand the significance of providing effective stress management interventions that can enhance employee well-being and organisational productivity.

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MINI REVIEW article

The brief introduction to organizational citizenship behaviors and counterproductive work behaviors: a literature review.

Qianqian Fan,

  • 1 Faculty of Business and Communications, INTI International University, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
  • 2 International Education College, Hebei Finance University, Baoding, China
  • 3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Quantity Surveying, INTI International University, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia

This paper presents a literature review on the topic of organizational performance. The study conceptualizes the overall performance of the organization as comprising of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) and counterproductive work behaviors (CWB). While there are numerous research studies on OCB, not many have focused on how OCB and CWB affect organizational performance simultaneously. The paper provides an explanation of the OCB and CWB concepts, followed by the primary research and focus of the study. The article presents a comprehensive framework for understanding the meanings of OCB and CWB, along with an internal hierarchy. This framework will serve as a beneficial resource for working managers, academics, and researchers, who seek to optimize economic productivity through improved understanding and management of OCB and CWB.

Introduction

Employees play a direct or indirect role in numerous factors that affect the operational results of an organization, by “shaping the organizational, social, and psychological context that serves as the catalyst for task activities and processes.” This behavior is referred to by some scholars as Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) or Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB), both of which have been the subject of numerous psychological and management studies ( Shah et al., 2022 ). According to these scholars, OCB is associated with an ethical organizational working environment and corporate sustainability performance ( Fein et al., 2023 ). In contrast, CWB represents intentionally destructive conduct aimed at harming an organization’s legitimate interests ( Lee, 2020 ). In previous research, many scholars have explained employee behaviors using Blau’s (1964) social exchange theory and the theory of Person-Organization Fit (POF) ( Kristof-Brown et al., 2005 ). The former elucidates the interaction among attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors, interpreting employee behaviors as a two-way communication between the individual and the organization ( Yıldız et al., 2015 ). The latter serves as a predictor of certain positive behaviors (e.g., OCB) and negative behaviors (e.g., CWB). In studying constructive workplace behaviors, researchers have distinguished between OCB and CCB (Compulsory Citizenship Behaviors). They have also identified the differential effects of various antecedents, including equity sensitivity, Chinese tradition, and job stress ( Yildiz et al., 2023 ). In research on destructive deviant workplace behaviors, these behaviors have been labeled with various terms that share similar meanings, such as counterproductive workplace behaviors (CWB) ( Yıldız et al., 2015 ). Furthermore, Yıldız and Alpkan (2015) proposed a comprehensive model to analyze these destructive deviant workplace behaviors. They also introduced individual and organizational antecedents of negative behaviors, including POF, careerism, participative decision-making, and alienation. Current findings suggest that the more positive an employee’s perceptions are of OCB, the less likely they are to engage in negative behavior. Most recent research in this field supports these findings ( Hossein and Somayeh, 2018 ; Jiang et al., 2022 ; Fein et al., 2023 ). These behaviors are shaped by the intent and direction of targeted actions ( Neuhoff, 2020 ).

The definition of OCB and CWB

The concept of OCB was formally recognized by Organ (1988) , who introduced it as a variable that could enhance organizational effectiveness ( Yow, 2017 ). It should be noted that while there is a concept similar to OCB, its nature is distinct: Compulsory Citizenship Behaviors (CCBs). CCBs refer to involuntary extra-role behaviors that arise under external pressure, not from the individual’s genuine goodwill. According to existing literature, various positive organizational and managerial factors can positively influence OCB. However, these factors may inadvertently pressurize employees, compelling them to display what appears to be OCB, but is in fact imposed. Such behaviors are termed as CCBs ( Yildiz et al., 2023 ). In another study, Yildiz et al. (2022) examined the CCBs, anger, and moral disengagement levels of nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic. They found that when nurses are subjected to CCBs, they might harbor feelings of resentment toward the organization. This can drain employees’ positive energy and resources, and potentially compromise their moral decision-making mechanisms. In essence, imposing extra behaviors upon employees without their genuine willingness can be more detrimental than beneficial to organizations.

Another concept, akin to OCB and gaining traction in recent organizational behavior studies, is Constructive Deviant Workplace Behaviors (CDWB). While both are similar in that they exceed typical role expectations, OCB has a more passive nature, necessitating employees’ adherence to organizational and managerial norms and rules. In contrast, constructive deviance demands proactive actions from employees that may contravene norms. This suggests that employees exhibiting constructive deviance tend to be more risk-prone than their peers ( Yildiz et al., 2015 ).

The above comparison helps clarify the characteristics of OCB. According to existing literature, OCB has been defined from a variety of perspectives ( Suprapty Hidar et al., 2023 ). However, after reviewing these definitions, most scholars agree that OCB represents behaviors demonstrated by employees which, although not required for their current task or role, contribute to the organization’s operations and growth ( Al-Ahmadi and Mahran, 2021 ). Examples of OCB in the workplace may include assisting coworkers and initiating improvement measures. Consequently, understanding why employees engage in OCB is both necessary and insightful. Educators have positive perceptions of organizational citizenship, with behaviors including suggesting improvements for the university, voluntarily assisting new lecturers, and dedicating their personal time to enhance the performance of their students and the university ( Khalid et al., 2021 ; Bastian and Widodo, 2022 ).

On the other hand, CWB refers to actions that can be detrimental to an organization or its members. This type of behavior has garnered increasing attention from scholars and managers due to its potential negative impacts on businesses ( Reizer et al., 2020 ). Some scholars adopts the psychological contract theory to explain the relationship between workplace ostracism and employees’ CWB in the tourism industry of China, found that understanding the effects for employees who are working in a cultural context that attributes high value on relationships and implicit psychological contracts ( Li and Khattak, 2023 ). It is important to emphasize the defining characteristics of CWB: it is goal-oriented, as employees intentionally partake in harmful behavior ( Akbari et al., 2022 ). As such, the repercussions of this behavior can significantly affect a wide range of stakeholders, including employees, coworkers, customers, and others.

Reasons for research OCB and CWB

Why are scholars so interested in studying OCB and CWB? There are two primary reasons. First, both OCB and CWB fall under a broad definition of work performance that extends beyond assigned tasks ( Neale, 2019 ). When assessing an employee’s performance, managers take these behaviors into account. Second, both OCB and CWB influence individual and organizational effectiveness and productivity ( Susnienė et al., 2021 ). OCB is typically associated with positive outcomes such as improving coworker/managerial activities, efficient utilization of resources, employee retainment, while CWB is generally linked to negative outcomes like theft; destruction of property; sabotage; misuse of information, time and resources ( Shah et al., 2022 ). At present, much interest has recently been paid to employee extra-role work behaviors (i.e., OCB, CWB) that are outside the technical core (i.e., task performance) but “shape the organizational, social, and psychological context that catalyzes task activities and processes” ( Macias et al., 2023 ).

Some researchers have sought to more comprehensively explain the origins of OCB and its impact on organizational development. Some hypothesize that OCB leads to improved organizational performance and outcomes ( Romi et al., 2019 ). Numerous studies have tied perceptions of unfair treatment to CWB actions, such as Siswanti et al.'s (2020) study, which employed organizational fairness theory and leader-member exchange theory to elucidate the connection. Just like Fein et al. (2023) study, who found that both OCB and CWB can be consequent behaviors following perceptions of distributive organizational injustice perceived as inequity.

According to Liu et al. (2023) , employees’ turnover intention is positively related to their subsequent CWB, and permanent workers are less likely to engage in CWB compared to temporary workers because of the former’s higher organizational affective commitment. As Talaeipashiri (2016) stated, aggression may occur within the organization and could be targeted at certain individuals or the organization as a whole. Thus, we can conclude that organizational CWBs refer to actions directed at the organization itself, such as theft or use of violence, whereas interpersonal CWBs refer to actions directed at individuals within the organization, such as rudeness toward coworkers.

Impact on the organization

Due to the importance of employee performance, OCB is crucial to an organization. Previous research has shown that organizations benefit from employee contributions that go above and beyond the formal job requirements, also known as OCB ( Organ, 2018 ). Scholars strive to explain the positive effects of OCB from a broader research perspective ( Vagner et al., 2022 ). For instance, OCB presents commitments that reasonable in nature and when totaled after some time and people, may upgrade the execution by greasing up the building the mental texture of the association, decreasing erosion, and/or expanding productivity ( Guntuku et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, some scholar’s studies have highlighted the relationship between OCB and employee, they found that OCB has a significant and negative impact on intention to leave. When an employee has performed better OCB, it will lead to a lower intention to leave the organization ( Abror et al., 2020 ).

The majority of CWBs involve proactive actions that intentionally or voluntarily harm an organization and its stakeholders, such as clients, colleagues, and supervisors ( Liu et al., 2023 ). CWBs specifically include intentionally failing to perform work duties properly, engaging in workplace deviance, or engaging in behaviors that violate organizational policies and procedures ( Mert, 2023 ). The most critical aspect of CWB is that they must be intentional and purposeful, not accidental ( Kraak et al., 2023 ). Thus, when a worker chooses and engages in such harmful behavior, they do so with a conscious intent.

Actually, CWB are generally assimilated to “arbitrary behaviors performed by employees that overshadow the accepted norms of the organization and might then inflict pernicious shocks on the body of the organization and lead to extensive economic and psychological losses” ( Akbari et al., 2022 ). It can be seen as a mechanism for employees to engage in deliberate behavior to restore perceived fairness in their transactions with the organization (“I am not paid enough, so I will work less”). According to researcher’s study, CWB is prevalent in the workplace and is regarded as one of the most pressing challenges encountering current organizations, costing them billions annually ( Macias et al., 2023 ).

Behavioral manifestations of OCB

OCBs are defined as “individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system and promotes the effective functioning of the organization as a whole” ( Organ, 1988 ; Fein et al., 2023 ). A multitude of strategic Human Resource Management issues—such as talent management, employee engagement, organizational climate, organizational effectiveness, turnover intentions, and organizational commitment—are intricately connected with human behavior-related psychological issues ( Ren et al., 2023 ). Among all of these antecedents HRM practices play the most vital and challenging role in enhancing employees OCB ( Sultana and Johari, 2023 ). As a result, organizations are keen to maintain industrial harmony through the identification of sociable behavioral skills, underscoring the practical relevance of this research.

Simultaneously, the growing interest in the study of OCB indicates that even positive behaviors can lead to negative outcomes. Several studies suggest that organizational citizenship behavior can be time-consuming ( Reizer et al., 2020 ), potentially distracting workers from their core tasks and leading to employee burnout ( Klotz et al., 2018 ). Specifically, some researchers have proposed that attachment acts as a personality regulator in the relationship between OCB and Work-Family Facilitation (WFF) ( Reizer et al., 2020 ). Numerous studies show that attachment orientation can illuminate how individuals connect with others and foster healthy interpersonal relationships ( Gazder and Stanton, 2023 ). These orientations, which consider fundamental personality tendencies, provide a theoretical foundation and a set of empirically validated data in the social and personality domains, and personality traits have a significant impact on direct and indirect organizational citizenship behaviors for the environment ( Szostek, 2021 ).

In general, OCB is a crucial factor for organizational development ( Somech and Ohayon, 2019 ), contributing to the creation of a psychosocial work environment that supports the organization’s core activities ( Organ and Ryan, 1995 ). Regarding the direction and typology of OCB, several models have been developed since the construct’s inception ( Turner and Connelly, 2021 ).

In Organ’s (1988) research, he identified five different types of behavior to exemplify organizational citizenship behavior: altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue ( Atatsi et al., 2021 ).

Altruism entails discretionary assistance provided to peers or colleagues concerning job-related tasks, such as helping newcomers and freely dedicating time to others. While typically directed at individuals, it enhances group efficiency by improving individual performance ( Dipaola and Hoy, 2005 ). In essence, altruism is “a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another’s welfare” ( Ma et al., 2018 ).

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness alludes to behavior that surpasses the minimal expected levels, like efficient time use and exceeding base expectations, thereby enhancing both personal and group efficiency ( DiPaola and Hoy, 2005 ). Notably, conscientiousness is among the Big Five personality traits, epitomizing diligence and self-discipline. It has been identified as a consistent predictor of academic achievement ( Icekson et al., 2020 ). Additionally, Abbas and Raja (2019) found conscientiousness to be the most influential predictor of problem-solving coping in response to stressors.

Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship is an individual’s capacity to endure suboptimal situations without complaints ( Lan, 2018 ), such as refraining from unnecessary grievances, thereby enhancing productive organizational time ( Dipaola and Hoy, 2005 ). Despite its importance, sportsmanship has garnered limited attention in academic literature. Organ’s definition appears narrower than the broader implications of the term. For instance, “good sports” not only tolerate inconveniences but also maintain positivity despite setbacks, do not take offense easily, sacrifice personal interests for collective good, and handle rejection gracefully ( Podsakoff et al., 2000 ). Puspitasari et al. (2023) suggest that sportsmanship enables teachers to tolerate imperfect organizational conditions without dissent. High sportsmanship fosters a positive climate, promoting collaboration and creating a harmonious work environment.

Courtesy is characterized as polite and thoughtful actions toward colleagues. Employees exhibiting courtesy consciously evade causing issues for others, thereby reducing managerial burdens and amplifying organizational performance ( Faajir et al., 2021 ). Such behavior is proactive, preventing issues rather than addressing existing problems ( Magdalena, 2014 ). Examples include giving advance notices and reminders, which helps avert issues and ensures productive time utilization ( Dipaola and Hoy, 2005 ). In essence, courtesy fosters positive relations among peers, crafting a conducive and amiable work setting ( Oamen, 2023 ).

Civic virtue

Civic virtue encompasses behaviors emphasizing participation in overarching organizational issues, like committee work and voluntary attendance at events, bolstering the organization’s interests ( Dipaola and Hoy, 2005 ). Robbins and Judge (2015) equate civic virtue with responsible behavior, which includes following organizational changes, suggesting improvements, and safeguarding organizational resources. Civic virtue implies that organizations empower employees to enhance their work quality ( Puspitasari et al., 2023 ). Broadly, it signifies an employee’s inclination to represent and elevate their organization’s image positively ( Oamen, 2023 ).

Contemporary literature explores other distinctions within OCB, although many of these dimensions are still applicable. In the early 1990s, researchers began differentiating between Organizational Citizenship Behavior—Individual (OCBI) and Organizational Citizenship Behavior—Organizational (OCBO) ( Smith et al., 1983 ). OCBIs involve helping behaviors directed toward other individuals (e.g., assisting a sick coworker), while OCBOs encompass actions directed at the entire organization, such as participating in a voluntary company fundraiser. Proponents of this perspective argue that OCBI and OCBO are distinct variables with unique antecedents and motivators and that they are associated with job satisfaction in different ways ( El-Kassar et al., 2021 ; Rahman and Karim, 2022 ).

Behavioral manifestations of CWB

The means and likelihood of employee retaliation-based behaviors as reactions to poor leadership and management have been noted extensively as behavioral manifestations of Counterproductive Work Behaviors (CWB) ( Fein et al., 2023 ). Individual CWBs refer to actions directed against individuals within the organization, while organizational CWBs refer to actions against the organization as a whole. The study of deviant workplace behavior by Robinson and Bennett (1995) provides evidence for this interpretation.

Several researchers have examined the connections between CWB and occupational stressors. Some researcher found that perceived increases in workload were positively related to increased exhaustion after work, psychosomatic symptoms, and to spillover effects at home, even after controlling for negative affect ( Rodríguez, 2019 ). The same as Lenz et al. (2023) study, whose research suggests that when exposed to stressors, individuals take longer breaks, or work slower than necessary (i.e., show CWB) as a strategy to avoid further resource loss. The work stress/mood/CWB model developed by Fox et al. (2001) suggests that CWB is an instinctive emotional response to workplace stressors. According to Spector and Jex (1998) , workplace stressors are understood to pose threats to health and to lead to negative emotional responses such as anger and anxiety. Furthermore, some scholars argue that job insecurity is associated with CWB behavior. Many organizations face restructuring and downsizing, especially in today’s uncertain and volatile economic climate, which can heighten employee anxiety and stress ( Pu et al., 2023 ).

Here is a comprehensive explanation of the five components of CWB. Mistreatment of others is considered individual counterproductive behavior (CWB), whereas deviant behavior, destructive behavior, withdrawal behavior, and theft are classified as organizational counterproductive behaviors (CWB).

Abuse against others

Abuse against others within an organization involves an individual’s behavior that is harmful to their coworkers ( Bal, 2021 ). These behaviors can inflict physical harm, such as humiliation, contempt, insulting remarks, or intimidation, or psychological harm, such as neglect and hindering effective work. Simultaneously, it should be stressed that since direct and overt physical violence is rare within organizations, many researchers focus on non-violent behaviors. The concept of abuse in this context is closely related to notions of incivility, emotional abuse, workplace bullying, and psychological siege, as outlined in the relevant literature. In other words, within the context and scope of CWB research, the study focuses on individuals who engage in these actions ( To and Huang, 2022 ).

Production deviance

The component of production deviance includes behaviors such as not deliberately and properly performing the tasks in the job description of the employee, making mistakes, performing poorly, slowing down and obeying the instructions ( Bal, 2021 ). A summation of items reflecting “interpersonal and organizational deviance” should indicate the participation levels of each form of deviance ( Fleming et al., 2022 ). Early work in CWB focused on what was characterized as employee deviance, falling into categories of product deviance, property deviance, political divisions, and personal aggression; while deviance has been characterized as “violating behaviors,” which are those that benefit self, those that benefit the organization in an unethical manner, or destruction to exact revenge ( Allen, 2023 ).

Sabotage involves the intentional and deliberate destruction (such as arson or property damage) or damage of organizational assets (like equipment) by employees in an effort to reduce productivity ( Spector et al., 2006 ; Kim and Jo, 2022 ). This vandalism can be traced back to the machine destruction during the workers’ movement following the Industrial Revolution, and can be seen as an extension or derivation of that act. In some studies, destructive behavior is interpreted from a broader perspective and is considered as negative behaviors based on employees’ personal interests, such as damaging organizational functions, disrupting or altering organizational order, creating and spreading negative rumors within the organization, slowing production, or harming customers and employees ( Skarlicki et al., 2008 ; Szostek, 2022 ). Several factors contributing to the emergence of destructive behavior include anger or hostility, responses to unfairness, the desire for personal gain, resistance to organizational change, and the need for approval from coworkers ( Wiseman and Stillwell, 2022 ).

Withdrawal includes reduce the working time below the minimum necessary to achieve the goals (for example, extending breaks, unjustified dismissals). Different from other forms of CWB, the employees engaged in withdrawal were characterized by a lower level of emotional exhaustion ( Szostek et al., 2020 ). Withdrawal is behavior where an employee attempts to avoid a situation rather than harming the organization and its members thus, this type of behavior is used as a passive way to influence the organization by withholding effort usually used to produce for the organization. At the same time, looking at the description of production deviance there is a noticeable similarity between the categories, but as previously stated, withdrawal is more passive in that it involves withdrawing effort systematically ( Van der Westhuizen, 2019 ).

Employees commit theft with the intention to harm organizations or individuals ( Sackett et al., 2006 ). It is a form of instrumental aggression (mainly toward the organization) motivated by the will to: obtain approval, help colleagues, equalize conditions and protect oneself in case of harmful actions of superiors ( Szostek, 2022 ). Many employees may view theft from the organization as non-aggressive due to financial needs, dissatisfaction with the job, or a sense of being treated unfairly ( Bal, 2021 ). In these instances, employees do not intend to use or sell the stolen items but aim to harm the organization’s economic interests.

The influencing factors of OCB and CWB

An individual’s inherent and immutable personality has a more stable and lasting impact on OCB/CWB ( Aspan et al., 2019 ). Previous research has elaborated on why intrinsic motivation theory can influence employees’ propensity to engage in civic behavior. Intrinsic motivation refers to the internal factor of employee self-satisfaction ( Runge et al., 2020 ; Schattke and Marion-Jetten, 2022 ). Since OCBs are less likely to be formally rewarded than prescribed work behaviors, they are most likely to be driven by internal incentive channels ( Dermawan and Handayani, 2019 ; Ren et al., 2022 ).

Personality traits can influence how individuals perceive and respond to diverse motivations ( Clark, 2010 ; Reizer et al., 2020 ). According to Neale’s (2019) study, the findings suggest that that the intentionality behind job crafting behaviors is predicted differentially by individual needs as well as personality traits (the dark triad and conscientiousness). Bright job crafting is more associated with engagement in OCBs while dark job crafting is more associated with engagement in CWBs. Related research demonstrates that organizational commitment is the most influential factor affecting OCB. High organizational commitment is related to high OCB and employee performance, low absence rates, and fewer delays ( Nurjanah et al., 2020 ).

Furthermore, it is believed that organizational commitment is positively related to perceived organizational support. When employees feel respected and supported for their roles, organizational commitment increases ( Lambert et al., 2017 ). This bond can be strengthened in numerous ways. Leadership has a significant effect on the perception of organizational support ( Wang et al., 2021 ). Specifically, Delegach et al. (2017) found that transformational leadership is positively associated with organizational commitment, whereas transactional leadership is positively associated with commitments to safety and the organization’s mission. Given the strong emphasis on transformational leadership practices in encouraging OCBs, these findings are intriguing. It’s possible that organizational commitment may increase if transactional leaders are better equipped to instill organizational values in employees.

Some scholars believe that job autonomy may have positive effects on organizational performance. Job autonomy is defined as the extent to which the job offers employees the freedom to make choices about what, when, and how they perform their work. Greater job autonomy reduces limitations from other job factors and improves individuals’ job performance ( Matteson et al., 2021 ). These contradictory findings and a contingency perspective suggest that the relationships between job autonomy, OCB, and organizational performance may depend on organizational circumstances ( Park, 2018 ).

From the comprehensive literature review, we observe various research perspectives and conclusions on deviant behaviors. In studying constructive and destructive deviant workplace behaviors, scholars have refined a general classification of workplace deviance. Using precise definitions of terms, they have analyzed antecedent factors, constructed various models or frameworks, and proposed feasible measures. This literature review aids in further summarizing the relevant content concerning OCB and CWB.

In this paper, previous scholars’ conclusions shed light on the propositions. In general, this paper provides a succinct overview of previous research on deviant behaviors, with a particular focus on OCB and CWB as well as their various aspects. It discusses personality, organizational commitment and job autonomy, three concepts intrinsically related to OCB/CWB, and how they function. This section underscores the impact that CWB and OCB have on organizational performance. Each aspect of CWB and OCB is also detailed within this study for relevance. The literature review offered above allows us to envision an optimal portrayal of organizational performance, and this theoretical framework can be beneficial in terms of practitioners and researchers. Within organizations, employees should exert additional effort and be open to adopting new work methods, while leaders should provide comprehensive support, effectively implement employees’ suggestions, set high standards, and commit more resources and energy to work-related matters rather than traditional management and rigid control. Given sufficient trust, employees are more likely to engage in cooperative behaviors, such as assisting coworkers and performing actions that benefit the group. Consequently, the costs associated with hiring, selecting, and integrating new coworkers should be reduced. Although this is not an empirical paper, the compilation of previous research findings constitutes a significant contribution to guiding managerial actions in organizations. This paper can serve as a guide for organizations seeking to improve their employees’ organizational performance and curtail the occurrence of negative behaviors.

The limitations of this paper are manifold. While the primary focus was on OCB and CWB, the intricate relationships among OCB, CWB, and deviant workplace behaviors were not fully explored. Moreover, the study centered on just three determinants: personality, organizational commitment, and job autonomy, assessing their influence on OCB/CWB. Future studies might consider a broader range of individual, task, and organizational antecedents and delve into potential indirect effects, such as moderator impacts, on OCB and CWB. Furthermore, this research did not narrow down to specific industries or professions, suggesting that subsequent research, when tailored to distinct sectors or job roles, might yield recommendations with heightened relevance and applicability.

Author contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: organizational performance, organizational citizenship behavior, counterproductive work behavior, economic productivity, influencing factors

Citation: Fan Q, Wider W and Chan CK (2023) The brief introduction to organizational citizenship behaviors and counterproductive work behaviors: a literature review. Front. Psychol . 14:1181930. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1181930

Received: 08 March 2023; Accepted: 29 August 2023; Published: 13 September 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Fan, Wider and Chan. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Walton Wider, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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The Role of the Workforce System in Addressing the Opioid Crisis: A Literature Review

Publication info, research methodology, description, other products.

This literature review describes findings from studies on various employment and training interventions to 1) assist individuals in recovery, 2) provide assistance to employers preventing opioid use disorder and creating a recovery-friendly workplace, and 3) develop the health care workforce to address the opioid crisis. The review was developed as part of an implementation evaluation of six Dislocated Worker Demonstration Grants to address the National Health Emergency (NHE) of the opioid crisis. Products form the study also include a resource guide, final report, and four short briefs on promising strategies.

As this review notes, the evidence base for employment interventions specifically aimed at or tested with people with opioid use disorder is limited and, that, while some of the approaches have been rigorously tested, others have not yet been evaluated but are seen as potentially promising practices. The research reviewed covers such approaches as:

  • Intensive case management, as found in various models, such as the individual placement and support (IPS) model, a counseling model based on the interpersonal cognitive problem solving (ICPS) method; and a strategy based on the customized employment support (CES) vocational model;
  • Use of "contingency management," a treatment approach that provides privileges or rewards to participants who exhibit desired behaviors;
  • "Lighter-touch" employment or vocational services for people receiving substance use disorder treatment;
  • Workplace prevention initiatives, employee assistance programs, recovery-friendly workplace initiatives, and modifications in workplace drug testing; and
  • Innovative methods to increase the reach and breadth of training for health care professionals, strategies to support provider training on using medication-assisted treatment, and use of nontraditional providers (such as peer recovery specialists).

The literature notes that, overall, the research on employment-related interventions for people with opioid use disorder is still in its infancy, and for that reason, opportunities for building evidence should be capitalized upon by any organization providing services to address it, and in so doing, lay the groundwork for more rigorous studies.

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