Chemical Engineering: Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century

problems solved by chemical engineering

Let’s build a chemical engineering vision for the next 30 years.

This three year study will outline an ambitious vision to guide chemical engineering research, innovation, and education for the next 30 years. A broad representation of the chemical engineering community will provide the study team with input on the current state of the profession and where growth is needed. 

Our study will cover several areas, including chemical engineering undergraduate and graduate education, promising intellectual and investment opportunities, and potential economic and national needs. The final report will provide guidance to funders, researchers, educators, and industry professionals. Our recommendations will focus on science needs and priorities.

Publications

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New Directions for Chemical Engineering

Over the past century, the work of chemical engineers has helped transform societies and the lives of individuals, from the synthetic fertilizers that helped feed the world to the development of novel materials used in fuels, electronics, medical devices, and other products. Chemical engineers' ability to apply systems-level thinking from molecular to manufacturing scales uniquely positions them to address today’s most pressing problems, including climate change and the overuse of resources by a growing population.

New Directions for Chemical Engineering details a vision to guide chemical engineering research, innovation, and education over the next few decades. This report calls for new investments in U.S. chemical engineering and the interdisciplinary, cross-sector collaborations necessary to advance the societal goals of transitioning to a low-carbon energy system, ensuring our production and use of food and water is sustainable, developing medical advances and engineering solutions to health equity, and manufacturing with less waste and pollution. The report also calls for changes in chemical engineering education to ensure the next generation of chemical engineers is more diverse and equipped with the skills necessary to address the challenges ahead.

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Frequently Asked Questions

For our statement of task, see the “Description” section below.

As we build a vision for the future of chemical engineering, we want to hear from those involved with the industry today. This professional community is broad and we plan to gather input from as many related and sub-fields as possible. Engage with us in the following ways:  

  • Use the "subscribe" box at the top of the page to receive updates and event announcements from the Board on Chemical Science and Technology
  • Email us at  [email protected]  with your questions and comments
  • Post using #TransformChemEngineering to share your insights on this study
  • Attend our public events 

More than thirty years ago, the National Academies released  Frontiers in Chemical Engineering: Research Needs and Opportunities , also known as the Amundson Report. The seminal 1988 work outlined a roadmap for turning promising chemical engineering research, educational, and industrial efforts into reality. The Amundson Report has driven many advances over the past 30 years. Over the past three decades, chemical engineering has reached new heights. The profession is rapidly transforming due to tremendous advances in science and technology, including:

  • The development of computer modelling of data and design manufacturing processes
  • The rise of machine learning and artificial intelligence
  • The fast-changing field of synthetic biology
  • The advent of process scalability and modular designs
  • The growing focus on sustainability and carbon emissions in manufacturing
  • The boom in hydraulic fracturing and availability of natural gas

Considering major changes in the field and available technologies, it’s time to revisit the subject of where chemical engineering should be headed.  

At a 2016 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) Roundtable, leaders in chemical engineering unanimously called for a follow up to the Amundson Report that would define a new chemical engineering vision for the 21st century. 

Learn more about our study process , including how we select a committee and how our reports are reviewed.

A report will be released in the second half of 2021, with dissemination going into 2022. Currently we are focused on report drafting, committee meetings, public webinars, and other information gathering activities.

Yes.  Once the committee has addressed all reviewer comments and all committee members and appropriate Academies officials have signed off, the final report is released to the study sponsor(s) and the public. The final report will be available as a pdf download for free and in hard copy form for purchase at www.nap.edu .

Yes. All meetings in which the committee gathers information are open to the public. This study (subject to change) will include public webinars, townhalls, and five committee meetings with open sessions hosted at various locations across the country. Registration is required to receive the webinar link. Subscribe to our board mailing list at the top of this page to be notified about committee meetings and other events.

Yes. Click here to submit comments, questions, concerns, or feedback. You can also present comments to the committee at our public meetings. Subscribe to our board mailing list using the form at the top of this page to be notified about public meetings and other avenues for providing comments.

Yes. All formal written materials submitted to the study committee by external sources are placed in the study’s public access file and can be made available to the public upon request. To obtain copies of the materials (free to press and government employees) please send inquiries to: Public Access Records Office (PARO) The National Academies Washington DC 20001 Tel: 202.334.3543 Email: [email protected]  

Normal business hours for PARO are 9:00 am to 5:00 pm, Monday through Friday.

Description

  • Identify challenges and opportunities that chemical engineering faces now and may face in the next 10-30 years, including   the broader impacts that chemical engineering can have on emerging technologies, national needs, and the wider science and engineering enterprise.
  • Identify a set of existing and new chemical engineering areas that offer promising intellectual and investment opportunities and new directions for the future, as well as areas that have major scientific gaps.
  • Identify aspects of undergraduate and graduate chemical engineering that will require changes needed to prepare students and workers for the future landscape and diversity of the profession.
  • Consider recent trends in chemical engineering in the United States relative to similar research that is taking place internationally. Based on those trends, recommend steps the United States might take to secure a leadership role and to enhance collaboration and coordination of such research and educational support, where appropriate, for identified subfields of chemical engineering.
  • Division on Earth and Life Studies
  • National Academy of Engineering
  • Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology

Consensus Study

  • Engineering and Technology
  • Math, Chemistry, and Physics

Contact the Public Access Records Office to make an inquiry, request a list of the public access file materials, or obtain a copy of the materials found in the file.

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Past Events

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February 28, 2022

Multiday Event | May 5-6, 2021

[Closed] Chemical Engineering Study Meeting 6

11:00AM - 2:00PM (ET)

April 14, 2021

[Closed] Chemical Engineering: Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century Tools Team Meeting 5

2:00PM - 5:00PM (ET)

April 13, 2021

[Closed] Chemical Engineering: Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century Joint Energy and Food and Water Team Meeting

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April 12, 2021

Related Publications

Convergence of the life sciences with fields including physical, chemical, mathematical, computational, engineering, and social sciences is a key strategy to tackle complex challenges and achieve new and innovative solutions. However, institutions face a lack of guidance on how to establish effective programs, what challenges they are likely to encounter, and what strategies other organizations have used to address the issues that arise. This advice is needed to harness the excitement generated by the concept of convergence and channel it into the policies, structures, and networks that will enable it to realize its goals.

Convergence investigates examples of organizations that have established mechanisms to support convergent research. This report discusses details of current programs, how organizations have chosen to measure success, and what has worked and not worked in varied settings. The report summarizes the lessons learned and provides organizations with strategies to tackle practical needs and implementation challenges in areas such as infrastructure, student education and training, faculty advancement, and inter-institutional partnerships.

Cover art for record id: 18722

Convergence: Facilitating Transdisciplinary Integration of Life Sciences, Physical Sciences, Engineering, and Beyond

Cover art for record id: 11867

International Benchmarking of U.S. Chemical Engineering Research Competitiveness

Cover art for record id: 11843

Exploring Opportunities in Green Chemistry and Engineering Education: A Workshop Summary to the Chemical Sciences Roundtable

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Preparing Chemists and Chemical Engineers for a Globally Oriented Workforce: A Workshop Report to the Chemical Sciences Roundtable

To enhance the nation's economic productivity and improve the quality of life worldwide, engineering education in the United States must anticipate and adapt to the dramatic changes of engineering practice. The Engineer of 2020 urges the engineering profession to recognize what engineers can build for the future through a wide range of leadership roles in industry, government, and academia--not just through technical jobs. Engineering schools should attract the best and brightest students and be open to new teaching and training approaches. With the appropriate education and training, the engineer of the future will be called upon to become a leader not only in business but also in nonprofit and government sectors.

The book finds that the next several decades will offer more opportunities for engineers, with exciting possibilities expected from nanotechnology, information technology, and bioengineering. Other engineering applications, such as transgenic food, technologies that affect personal privacy, and nuclear technologies, raise complex social and ethical challenges. Future engineers must be prepared to help the public consider and resolve these dilemmas along with challenges that will arise from new global competition, requiring thoughtful and concerted action if engineering in the United States is to retain its vibrancy and strength.

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The Engineer of 2020: Visions of Engineering in the New Century

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Beyond the Molecular Frontier: Challenges for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering

For a period of history no women worked outside the home. Bust as years have gone by and society has changed, Women are working varying jobs every day. They are, however, underrepresented in some sectors of jobs. This includes women in the engineering and science fields. To matters worse, women do not ascend the career ladder as fast as or as far as men do.

The impact of this and related problems for science, the academic enterprise, the U.S. economy, and global economic competitiveness have been recently examined. The Chemical Sciences Roundtable evaluate that the demographics of the workforce and the implications for science and society vary, depending on the field of science or engineering. The roundtable has organized a workshop, "Women in the Chemical Workforce," to address issues pertinent to the chemical and chemical engineering workforce as a whole, with an emphasis on the advancement of women.

Women in the Chemical Workforce: A Workshop Report to the Chemical Sciences Roundtable includes reports regarding the workshop's three sessions—Context and Overview, Opportunities for Change, and Conditions for Success—as well as presentations by invited speakers, discussions within breakout groups, oral reports from each group.

Cover art for record id: 10047

Women in the Chemical Workforce: A Workshop Report to the Chemical Sciences Roundtable

In the next 10 to 15 years, chemical engineers have the potential to affect every aspect of American life and promote the scientific and industrial leadership of the United States. Frontiers in Chemical Engineering explores the opportunities available and gives a blueprint for turning a multitude of promising visions into realities. It also examines the likely changes in how chemical engineers will be educated and take their place in the profession, and presents new research opportunities.

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Frontiers in Chemical Engineering: Research Needs and Opportunities

Brenna Albin

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  • Liana Vaccari  
  • Jessica Wolfman  
  • Guru Madhavan  

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Grand challenges in chemical engineering

Chemical Engineering—also referred to as process engineering—is the branch of engineering applying physical and life sciences, mathematics and economics to the production and transformation of chemicals, energy and materials. Traditionally, it consists of heat, mass and momentum transport, kinetics and reaction engineering, chemical thermodynamics, control and dynamic simulation, separation, and unit operations. Conventionally developed and applied for the petro-chemical and the heavy chemical industry, chemical engineering has rapidly evolved with applications in a multitude of fields, including climate change, environmental systems, biomedical, new materials and complex systems.

In 2003, the report “Beyond molecular frontiers: challenges for chemistry sciences and chemical engineering” mandated by the National Research Council of the American National Academies and chaired by Professors Breslow and Tirrell was released (National Research Council, 2003 ). The study investigated the status of chemical science: where are we, how did we arrive at this state and where are we heading? It concluded that science has become increasingly interdisciplinary. It also identified a trend toward the strong integration from the molecular level to chemical engineering and “ the emergence of the intersections of the chemical science with all the natural sciences, agriculture, environmental science and medicine as well as with materials science, physics, information technology and many other fields of engineering .” A decade later, this vision has been largely realized and so-called “molecular engineering” that integrates chemical engineering with all sciences is now a reality. These rapidly expanding intersections of a wide range of areas of science with engineering are the new Frontiers in Chemical Engineering.

Frontiers in Science and Engineering are mobile, ever expanding in a non-linear and stochastic fashion. Any attempt to map the frontiers of knowledge is a difficult exercise that is usually out of date before it is published. An arguably more profitable alternative is to challenge the frontiers: to push their boundaries until some reaction occurs: whether rejection by the community or some progress follows in incremental or quantum steps.

Another approach to define the frontiers of chemical engineering is to consider the chemical reactions that have marked the development of humanity's current standards of living and the topics currently critical to ensure that acceptable standards are distributed more equitably around the globe without catastrophic impact on global climate and ecosystems. What is the most important chemical reaction that has impacted humanity? And what will be the next one? What are the most significant chemical technologies needed to ensure expansion of acceptable living standards while minimizing environmental impact?

To take just one of many possible candidates for the title of “Most Important Chemical Process,” the Haber-Bosch reaction, which produces ammonia by reacting atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen, has allowed humanity to pass the 2 billion population barrier and reach the current global population of some 7 billion (Smil, 1999 ; Kolbert, 2013 ). Ammonia is a key ingredient in fertilizer for good plant growth. Until the advent of the Haber-Bosh process in the 1913, agriculture operated under nitrogen-limited conditions with the cultivation of arable lands sufficient to feed only 2 billion people. Developing low cost fertilizer has enabled a new era of growth in both crop yields and human nutritional standards by escaping the limitations imposed by natural nitrogen fixation processes. An agricultural revolution has been the result.

Another example of chemical processes with wide social significance are the development of antibiotics, vaccines and immunology which have given mankind much better control over microbial pathogens, allowing longer and better human lives. Yet a third area of chemistry is our understanding of semiconductor materials and how to mass produce them with extraordinary precision that is the basis of modern microelectronics, computer science and the World Wide Web. These chemical and electronic technologies have effectively decoupled the memory/storage function of the human brain from its analytical capability, thereby liberating its powers to focus on creativity and connectivity in ways that previous generations could not imagine. Increasingly sophisticated application of mathematical principles to the phenomena of physics, chemistry and biological sciences, from the atomic level to intergalactic scales, enable us to better understand natural and anthropogenic phenomena and to either control them, or to prepare for changes which are beyond our control.

Langer and Tirrell, from MIT and Caltech respectively, have pioneered an engineering approach to biomaterials for medical application, even pushing the boundary of oncology and tissue engineering (Langer and Tirrell, 2004 ; Karp and Langer, 2011 ; Schroeder et al., 2011 ). Bird et al. showed that molecular engineering of surface affects not only the behavior of liquid droplets with a surface at equilibrium, but also their dynamic interaction (Bird et al., 2013 ).

When addressing industrial and practical problems, we often also challenge frontiers in chemical engineering. Chemical engineering represents both the application of science and the link between chemistry, society, and industry. Chemical engineering studies often push the boundaries of chemistry by applying model systems and equations developed with well-behaved systems to complex industrial challenges. The engineering approach rates and quantifies the relative importance of combined, antagonistic, or synergistic systems. With the aim of minimizing pitch deposition during papermaking, we recently investigated the effect of salts, shear, and pH on pitch coagulation to discover the effect of ion-specificity and non-ideal behaviors with shear (Lee et al., 2012 ). In the development of paper diagnostics for blood typing, we quantified the bio-specific reversible coagulation of red blood cells and used adsorption, elution, filtration and chromatography to develop a practical technology. This applied study has highlighted the gap in knowledge on the dynamic interaction of antibodies and macromolecules with surfaces (Khan et al., 2010 ; Al-Tamimi et al., 2012 ).

So what are some new frontiers to be challenged? From a multidimensional approach based on field and application they are as follows:

Reaction Engineering

  • Combination of organic, inorganic and biochemical catalysis to decrease energy of activation, increase selectivity, reduce energy usage, by-products (separation) and replace toxic organic solvents and reagents based on scarce elements by reactions in aqueous or bio-based solvents using green chemical principles.
  • Harnessing photosynthesis to convert solar energy and CO 2 into glucose, ligno-cellulosic polymers and their intermediates using enzymatic catalysts and/or aqueous systems.
  • Understand and optimize mass transfer, energy transfer, extent, and selectivity of reactions in medicine. Applications include the selective destruction of cancer cells, bacteria, fungi, and viruses (infection) and the regulation of immunologic reactions.
  • Predictive reaction engineering adjusting rate of reactant and product removal accordingly to kinetics of reaction to minimize side reactions, thereby making separation easier and more efficient.

Unit Operations and Transport Phenomena

  • More selective, specific, and low energy separation processes for gas-gas and liquid-liquid systems.
  • High flux and anti-fouling reverse osmosis and membrane separations.
  • Improved separation of thermally sensitive chemicals having similar boiling points using fractional distillation, or other means.
  • Better methods for pumping and transporting suspensions of solids in liquids-especially at high solids contents.
  • Develop an engineering approach to model and regulate (control) the behavior and functionality of the human body and mental processes.
  • Apply simulation and control strategies to the various hierarchies of biological systems, ranging from DNA and RNA, the cell, tissues, and organs, up to the human body to give improved quality of life to people with genetic and related disorders.
  • Minimally invasive sensors to control blood pressure, blood lipid concentrations and heart rate.
  • Nanotechnology for selectivity in oncology and drug delivery.
  • Biotechnologies and improved biomaterials for organ regeneration.
  • Low cost energy is key to improve living standards for the majority of people in less developed nations. With anthropogenic greenhouse gases causing a slow but steady global warming—an adequately proven reality—a prime challenge is to produce net energy with minimal environmental impact. Chemical engineers have a responsibility to verify and ensure that energy balances and thermodynamics are the best economically achievable. The production of chemicals from renewable source and using green chemistry is an extension of the challenge, and again chemical engineers' incumbent responsibility is to discover processes and reactions with positive thermodynamics and energy balances, then to optimize these processes by active engagement with economists, environmental scientists, and society at large.
  • Cost-effective storage of solar energy (including solar energy embodied in wind and ocean currents) to enable distribution at times of peak human demand remains a critical issue. Development of reversible processes for energy storage and utilization that have rapid start-up and shut-down characteristics is therefore of prime importance.
  • While rapid and controlled release of large quantities of (mainly) electrical energy is of importance in meeting society's needs, it should not be forgotten that there would be enormous benefit in capturing and storing solar energy in ways that mimic natural photosynthetic processes, so that solar energy is stored in chemical bonds, rather than as heat, or electronic charge separation. If the “artificial” photosynthetic reaction into which the solar energy is “pumped” consumes carbon dioxide, then clearly two major objectives would be achieved in a single technical advance. In this connection it is worth remembering that while the reaction of carbon monoxide with oxygen is highly exothermic, the reverse reaction, namely the thermal dissociation of carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen, can occur at the sorts of temperatures that can be reached in a solar furnace (Nigara and Gales, 1986 ). The remaining technological gaps are development of advanced refractory materials that can withstand the temperatures required to drive the reaction, heat exchange, and efficient separation of the reaction products. Dissolution of carbon monoxide in aqueous alkali to form alkali metal formats would seem to be a promising approach.
  • Multiscale engineering: linking the nano, micro, and meso scales to the macro scale in both materials and processes will be fundamental to the great majority of challenges listed above.
  • In order for nanotechnology to advance, molecular engineering using improved molecular dynamic simulations will be essential.
  • Use of materials that can be reprocessed into similar products, or if not possible, into a cascade of products of lower value, with the final end-products being completely biodegradable.
  • Develop materials and composites from low-energy processes by better understanding of the component structures from the atomic scale to macroscopic properties. Replacement of commodity applications of energy-intensive concrete and metals should be targeted.

Green Chemicals

  • The principles of green chemistry have been well publicized (Anastas and Warner, 1998 ). Maximum use needs to be made of renewable feedstock, utilizing all components. Because biomass has a low energy density compared to fossil carbon sources, the energy efficiencies of biomass processing require critical re-examination, including the development of smaller mobile processing plants that can be taken to the areas where biomass is available on a seasonal basis. Such a re-examination should not exclude possible social and community benefits.
  • A key factor in better usage of biomass will be development of new chemical pathways that make more intelligent use of the structures of polysaccharides and lignins. In this connection, the bimolecular mechanisms by which certain insects in the families Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera can manipulate cell differentiation and tissue formation in higher plants to their advantage, by inducing the formation of galls and related, often highly ordered protective structures, made by the host plant certainly warrants detailed multidisciplinary study.
  • While a number of useful enzymes are now produced, isolated and used on an industrial scale, the rates at which they catalyze processes are usually limited by thermal instability and denaturation by surfactants and movement of pH outside the neutral range. Chemical engineers have traditionally used heat, pressure, and pH to accelerate chemical reactions, yet the study of the molecular biology of extremophile organisms and their enzymes that have obviously evolved to withstand extreme temperatures, pressures and pH ranges that occur in deep ocean vents and volcanic pools appears to be in its infancy.

Progress in chemical engineering has often been incremental. Initially born of a marriage between mechanical engineering and applied chemistry, chemical engineering has grown into a fully-fledged broad discipline that is constantly seeking new challenges. One area in which many of these challenges are focused improved technologies to harness matter and energy in ways that generate new products, such as organs, energy storage systems, molecularly engineered composites, etc. A closely related area is process optimization to ensure that both existing and new products are manufactured in the most efficient and sustainable ways—in terms of energy and by-products. A third area of challenges is building new facilities and modifying older ones such that they have a clear social license to operate and use the technologies on which society relies to provide acceptable standards of living.

Many of the most interesting and fruitful challenges at the frontiers of chemical engineering involve the integration of chemical engineering with chemistry, physics and biology accompanied by a redefinition of the control volume. In the spirit of this philosophy, the first research topic of Frontiers in Chemical Engineering will be application of chemical engineering principles to oncology with a nanotechnology focus.

Conflict of interest statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to the reviewer for stimulating and constructive discussion.

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You can visit the Student Guide also via the shortlink students.aalto.fi

School of Chemical Engineering

Chemical engineering solves the biggest problems of our time.

Chemical engineering students gathered for an outdoors event

Master’s programmes’ portfolio renewal in the School of Chemical Engineering (year 2024)

The School of Chemical Engineering are redesigning the offering of their Master's studies portfolio. This page contains information about the renewal project, its timetable, guidelines and other material. Here you will also find information about the new Master’s programmes that will be created.

Graduates of chemical engineering understand what needs to be done to safeguard a clean environment and sustainable development, and they know how to do it. They develop solutions that replace plastic, sustainable battery technologies and recycling of raw materials, among other things. The effects of innovations in chemical engineering can be massive even on a global scale. 

Join us if you want to change the world! Ninety-nine per cent of graduates find employment in jobs corresponding to education, from consumer brands to large industries.

Bachelor's programmes at the School of Chemical Engineering

Application period for Bachelor's Programme in English is 3.— 17.1.2024. 

Application period for Bachelor's Programme in Finnish is 13.— 27.3.2024.

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Chemical Engineering, Bachelor of Science (Technology), Master of Science (Technology)

Local and global challenges caused by global warming, pandemic events, or over consumption are becoming more and more complex and urgent. Interdisciplinary actions are needed to solve them. The Chemical Engineering major offers a highly multidisciplinary education including mathematics, computational tools, chemistry, biochemistry, life sciences, and chemical engineering.

Students studying in groups in the laboratory

Kemian tekniikka, tekniikan kandidaatti ja diplomi-insinööri

Haluaisitko päästä konkreettisesti luomaan jotakin uutta ja hyödyllistä: biohajoavia muoveja, vettähylkiviä pintoja tai yhä parempia lääkeaineita? Kemian tekniikka on jännittävä ala, jossa kemiasta tuttuja ilmiöitä sovelletaan monialaisesti tieteessä ja teollisuudessa. Haasteet, joihin kemistien ratkaisukykyä tarvitaan, liittyvät luonnonvarojen kestävään käyttöön, kiertotalouteen ja puhtaan veden, ilman ja ravinnon riittävyyteen. Kemian tekniikan diplomi-insinöörit ovat kestävän kehityksen ja vastuullisen kuluttamisen edistäjiä, joiden osaaminen on sekä Suomessa että maailmalla erittäin ajankohtaista ja arvostettua.

Master’s Programmes at the School of Chemical Engineering

Master's programmes at the School of Chemical Engineering

Application period: 30.11.2023 — 2.1.2024

Lignin nanoparticles applied to multilayered films to create colourful coatings. Photo: Aalto University, Alexander Henn

Bioproducts Engineering, Master of Science (Technology)

The conversion of bio-based resources into recyclable bioproducts is of crucial importance now and in the future.

Biotechnology laboratory

Biotechnology, Master of Science (Technology)

Biotechnology experts work in many industries from chemical to food, helping the society in its way towards a carbon-neutral bioeconomy.

Chemistry

Chemistry and Materials Science, Master of Science (Technology)

The development of new molecules and materials has an essential role in building a more sustainable future.

A close-up photo of an epoxy sample with different shades of blue, and some green and gray colouring as well

Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering​, Master of Science (Technology)

Across all industries, the importance of environmentally responsible process design, development, and implementation is rapidly growing.

Check all the bachelor's programmes at Aalto University here .

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Aalto Joint Master’s Programmes

Master’s Programmes at Aalto University with more than one school involved. At least one major/specialization option at Aalto School of Chemical Engineering.

Application period: 30.11.2023 — 2.1.2024.

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Industrial Energy Processes - Advanced Energy Solutions, Master of Science (Technology)

Interested in a career in energy for our society? Want to be involved in the development of industrial energy solutions of the future? The Master’s Programme in Advanced Energy Solutions may be the perfect match for you. The Industrial Energy Processes and Sustainability major gives students a basic and advanced understanding of the industrial energy processes, outlines the main challenges energy solutions in industry are facing today, and introduces possible ways towards a sustainable future.

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Creative Sustainability, Master of Science (Technology)

Complex sustainability challenges, such as the climate crises, the loss of biodiversity, poverty, and inequality, call for new mindsets and skills. The Master’s Programme in Creative Sustainability (CS) provides a multidisciplinary learning platform in the fields of design, business, and materials and chemical engineering.

IDBM student explaining a concept to IDBM Impact 2018 event visitors

International Design Business Management, Master of Science (Technology)

IDBM is a pioneering and renowned study programme that truly embodies the vision of Aalto by integrating design and technology with global business development. Through transdisciplinary teamwork and real-life business challenges provided by our prominent industry partners, the programme prepares students as the next generation of creative professionals. IDBM is uniquely positioned as the only programme offered in all six schools of Aalto, allowing programme graduates to earn a Master’s degree in either business, design or technology.

Aalto University / students at Aalto University / photo by Aino Huovio

Life Science Technologies - Master of Science (Technology)

The Master's Programme in Life Science Technologies educates a new generation of engineers, researchers and entrepreneurs who are committed to improving human health and wellbeing through development of innovative scientific and engineering solutions. The programme has a strong focus on the technological aspects of Life Sciences and is closely connected to the world-class research at Aalto University in the fields of biological data analysis and modelling, bioinformatics, bioelectronics and biosensing, biomedical engineering, human neuroscience and neurotechnology, biomaterials engineering and synthetic biology.

Joint international Master’s Programmes

International double/triple degree Master’s Programmes with partner universities from different parts of Europe.

You can find the application deadlines for each programme on the programmes' websites below.

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Advanced Materials for Innovation and Sustainability (EIT Raw Materials), Master of Science (Technology)

Students will acquire an understanding of the full raw materials value chain and create a mindset for innovation and entrepreneurship focusing on sustainability. The programme covers the following themes: substitution of critical or toxic materials in products and for optimized performance, material chain optimization for end-of-life products, and product and service design for the circular economy.

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Biological and Chemical Engineering for a Sustainable Bioeconomy (Bioceb), Master of Science (Technology)

As the first European joint programme focusing on bioeconomy, the Master’s Programme in Biological and Chemical Engineering for a Sustainable Bioeconomy (Bioceb) trains future research and innovation managers leaping to the forefront of the sustainable development movement. They are well-prepared for tackling global challenges like climate change mitigation and the preservation of biodiversity.

biomass

Environomical Pathways for Sustainable Energy Systems (SELECT), Master of Science (Technology)

Real-world energy challenges, collaborative solutions, sustainable tomorrow - a pathway for an exciting future in sustainable energy and environmental work. This is a joint program leading into double Master's degree.

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European Mining Course, Master of Science (Technology)

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Specialty grand challenge article, grand challenges in chemical engineering.

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  • Department of Chemical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia

Chemical Engineering—also referred to as process engineering—is the branch of engineering applying physical and life sciences, mathematics and economics to the production and transformation of chemicals, energy and materials. Traditionally, it consists of heat, mass and momentum transport, kinetics and reaction engineering, chemical thermodynamics, control and dynamic simulation, separation, and unit operations. Conventionally developed and applied for the petro-chemical and the heavy chemical industry, chemical engineering has rapidly evolved with applications in a multitude of fields, including climate change, environmental systems, biomedical, new materials and complex systems.

In 2003, the report “Beyond molecular frontiers: challenges for chemistry sciences and chemical engineering” mandated by the National Research Council of the American National Academies and chaired by Professors Breslow and Tirrell was released ( National Research Council, 2003 ). The study investigated the status of chemical science: where are we, how did we arrive at this state and where are we heading? It concluded that science has become increasingly interdisciplinary. It also identified a trend toward the strong integration from the molecular level to chemical engineering and “ the emergence of the intersections of the chemical science with all the natural sciences, agriculture, environmental science and medicine as well as with materials science, physics, information technology and many other fields of engineering .” A decade later, this vision has been largely realized and so-called “molecular engineering” that integrates chemical engineering with all sciences is now a reality. These rapidly expanding intersections of a wide range of areas of science with engineering are the new Frontiers in Chemical Engineering.

Frontiers in Science and Engineering are mobile, ever expanding in a non-linear and stochastic fashion. Any attempt to map the frontiers of knowledge is a difficult exercise that is usually out of date before it is published. An arguably more profitable alternative is to challenge the frontiers: to push their boundaries until some reaction occurs: whether rejection by the community or some progress follows in incremental or quantum steps.

Another approach to define the frontiers of chemical engineering is to consider the chemical reactions that have marked the development of humanity's current standards of living and the topics currently critical to ensure that acceptable standards are distributed more equitably around the globe without catastrophic impact on global climate and ecosystems. What is the most important chemical reaction that has impacted humanity? And what will be the next one? What are the most significant chemical technologies needed to ensure expansion of acceptable living standards while minimizing environmental impact?

To take just one of many possible candidates for the title of “Most Important Chemical Process,” the Haber-Bosch reaction, which produces ammonia by reacting atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen, has allowed humanity to pass the 2 billion population barrier and reach the current global population of some 7 billion ( Smil, 1999 ; Kolbert, 2013 ). Ammonia is a key ingredient in fertilizer for good plant growth. Until the advent of the Haber-Bosh process in the 1913, agriculture operated under nitrogen-limited conditions with the cultivation of arable lands sufficient to feed only 2 billion people. Developing low cost fertilizer has enabled a new era of growth in both crop yields and human nutritional standards by escaping the limitations imposed by natural nitrogen fixation processes. An agricultural revolution has been the result.

Another example of chemical processes with wide social significance are the development of antibiotics, vaccines and immunology which have given mankind much better control over microbial pathogens, allowing longer and better human lives. Yet a third area of chemistry is our understanding of semiconductor materials and how to mass produce them with extraordinary precision that is the basis of modern microelectronics, computer science and the World Wide Web. These chemical and electronic technologies have effectively decoupled the memory/storage function of the human brain from its analytical capability, thereby liberating its powers to focus on creativity and connectivity in ways that previous generations could not imagine. Increasingly sophisticated application of mathematical principles to the phenomena of physics, chemistry and biological sciences, from the atomic level to intergalactic scales, enable us to better understand natural and anthropogenic phenomena and to either control them, or to prepare for changes which are beyond our control.

Langer and Tirrell, from MIT and Caltech respectively, have pioneered an engineering approach to biomaterials for medical application, even pushing the boundary of oncology and tissue engineering ( Langer and Tirrell, 2004 ; Karp and Langer, 2011 ; Schroeder et al., 2011 ). Bird et al. showed that molecular engineering of surface affects not only the behavior of liquid droplets with a surface at equilibrium, but also their dynamic interaction ( Bird et al., 2013 ).

When addressing industrial and practical problems, we often also challenge frontiers in chemical engineering. Chemical engineering represents both the application of science and the link between chemistry, society, and industry. Chemical engineering studies often push the boundaries of chemistry by applying model systems and equations developed with well-behaved systems to complex industrial challenges. The engineering approach rates and quantifies the relative importance of combined, antagonistic, or synergistic systems. With the aim of minimizing pitch deposition during papermaking, we recently investigated the effect of salts, shear, and pH on pitch coagulation to discover the effect of ion-specificity and non-ideal behaviors with shear ( Lee et al., 2012 ). In the development of paper diagnostics for blood typing, we quantified the bio-specific reversible coagulation of red blood cells and used adsorption, elution, filtration and chromatography to develop a practical technology. This applied study has highlighted the gap in knowledge on the dynamic interaction of antibodies and macromolecules with surfaces ( Khan et al., 2010 ; Al-Tamimi et al., 2012 ).

So what are some new frontiers to be challenged? From a multidimensional approach based on field and application they are as follows:

Reaction Engineering

• Combination of organic, inorganic and biochemical catalysis to decrease energy of activation, increase selectivity, reduce energy usage, by-products (separation) and replace toxic organic solvents and reagents based on scarce elements by reactions in aqueous or bio-based solvents using green chemical principles.

• Harnessing photosynthesis to convert solar energy and CO 2 into glucose, ligno-cellulosic polymers and their intermediates using enzymatic catalysts and/or aqueous systems.

• Understand and optimize mass transfer, energy transfer, extent, and selectivity of reactions in medicine. Applications include the selective destruction of cancer cells, bacteria, fungi, and viruses (infection) and the regulation of immunologic reactions.

• Predictive reaction engineering adjusting rate of reactant and product removal accordingly to kinetics of reaction to minimize side reactions, thereby making separation easier and more efficient.

Unit Operations and Transport Phenomena

• More selective, specific, and low energy separation processes for gas-gas and liquid-liquid systems.

• High flux and anti-fouling reverse osmosis and membrane separations.

• Improved separation of thermally sensitive chemicals having similar boiling points using fractional distillation, or other means.

• Better methods for pumping and transporting suspensions of solids in liquids- especially at high solids contents.

• Develop an engineering approach to model and regulate (control) the behavior and functionality of the human body and mental processes.

• Apply simulation and control strategies to the various hierarchies of biological systems, ranging from DNA and RNA, the cell, tissues, and organs, up to the human body to give improved quality of life to people with genetic and related disorders.

• Minimally invasive sensors to control blood pressure, blood lipid concentrations and heart rate.

• Nanotechnology for selectivity in oncology and drug delivery.

• Biotechnologies and improved biomaterials for organ regeneration.

• Low cost energy is key to improve living standards for the majority of people in less developed nations. With anthropogenic greenhouse gases causing a slow but steady global warming—an adequately proven reality—a prime challenge is to produce net energy with minimal environmental impact. Chemical engineers have a responsibility to verify and ensure that energy balances and thermodynamics are the best economically achievable. The production of chemicals from renewable source and using green chemistry is an extension of the challenge, and again chemical engineers' incumbent responsibility is to discover processes and reactions with positive thermodynamics and energy balances, then to optimize these processes by active engagement with economists, environmental scientists, and society at large.

• Cost-effective storage of solar energy (including solar energy embodied in wind and ocean currents) to enable distribution at times of peak human demand remains a critical issue. Development of reversible processes for energy storage and utilization that have rapid start-up and shut-down characteristics is therefore of prime importance.

• While rapid and controlled release of large quantities of (mainly) electrical energy is of importance in meeting society's needs, it should not be forgotten that there would be enormous benefit in capturing and storing solar energy in ways that mimic natural photosynthetic processes, so that solar energy is stored in chemical bonds, rather than as heat, or electronic charge separation. If the “artificial” photosynthetic reaction into which the solar energy is “pumped” consumes carbon dioxide, then clearly two major objectives would be achieved in a single technical advance. In this connection it is worth remembering that while the reaction of carbon monoxide with oxygen is highly exothermic, the reverse reaction, namely the thermal dissociation of carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen, can occur at the sorts of temperatures that can be reached in a solar furnace ( Nigara and Gales, 1986 ). The remaining technological gaps are development of advanced refractory materials that can withstand the temperatures required to drive the reaction, heat exchange, and efficient separation of the reaction products. Dissolution of carbon monoxide in aqueous alkali to form alkali metal formats would seem to be a promising approach.

• Multiscale engineering: linking the nano, micro, and meso scales to the macro scale in both materials and processes will be fundamental to the great majority of challenges listed above.

• In order for nanotechnology to advance, molecular engineering using improved molecular dynamic simulations will be essential.

• Use of materials that can be reprocessed into similar products, or if not possible, into a cascade of products of lower value, with the final end-products being completely biodegradable.

• Develop materials and composites from low-energy processes by better understanding of the component structures from the atomic scale to macroscopic properties. Replacement of commodity applications of energy-intensive concrete and metals should be targeted.

Green Chemicals

• The principles of green chemistry have been well publicized ( Anastas and Warner, 1998 ). Maximum use needs to be made of renewable feedstock, utilizing all components. Because biomass has a low energy density compared to fossil carbon sources, the energy efficiencies of biomass processing require critical re-examination, including the development of smaller mobile processing plants that can be taken to the areas where biomass is available on a seasonal basis. Such a re-examination should not exclude possible social and community benefits.

• A key factor in better usage of biomass will be development of new chemical pathways that make more intelligent use of the structures of polysaccharides and lignins. In this connection, the bimolecular mechanisms by which certain insects in the families Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera can manipulate cell differentiation and tissue formation in higher plants to their advantage, by inducing the formation of galls and related, often highly ordered protective structures, made by the host plant certainly warrants detailed multidisciplinary study.

• While a number of useful enzymes are now produced, isolated and used on an industrial scale, the rates at which they catalyze processes are usually limited by thermal instability and denaturation by surfactants and movement of pH outside the neutral range. Chemical engineers have traditionally used heat, pressure, and pH to accelerate chemical reactions, yet the study of the molecular biology of extremophile organisms and their enzymes that have obviously evolved to withstand extreme temperatures, pressures and pH ranges that occur in deep ocean vents and volcanic pools appears to be in its infancy.

Progress in chemical engineering has often been incremental. Initially born of a marriage between mechanical engineering and applied chemistry, chemical engineering has grown into a fully-fledged broad discipline that is constantly seeking new challenges. One area in which many of these challenges are focused improved technologies to harness matter and energy in ways that generate new products, such as organs, energy storage systems, molecularly engineered composites, etc. A closely related area is process optimization to ensure that both existing and new products are manufactured in the most efficient and sustainable ways—in terms of energy and by-products. A third area of challenges is building new facilities and modifying older ones such that they have a clear social license to operate and use the technologies on which society relies to provide acceptable standards of living.

Many of the most interesting and fruitful challenges at the frontiers of chemical engineering involve the integration of chemical engineering with chemistry, physics and biology accompanied by a redefinition of the control volume. In the spirit of this philosophy, the first research topic of Frontiers in Chemical Engineering will be application of chemical engineering principles to oncology with a nanotechnology focus.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to the reviewer for stimulating and constructive discussion.

Al-Tamimi, M., Shen, W., Rania, Z., Huy, T., and Garnier, G. (2012). Validation of paper-based assay for rapid blood typing. Anal. Chem . 84, 1661–1668. doi: 10.1021/ac202948t

Pubmed Abstract | Pubmed Full Text | CrossRef Full Text

Anastas, P. T., and Warner, J. C. (1998). Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bird, J. C., Dhiman, R., Kwong, H.-M., and Varanasi, K. K. (2013). Reducing contact time of a bouncing drop. Nature 503, 385–388. doi: 10.1038/nature12740

Karp, J. M., and Langer, R. (2011). Dry solution to a sticky problem. Nature 477, 42–43. doi: 10.1038/477042a

Khan, M. S., Thouas, G., Whyte, G., Shen, W., and Garnier, G. (2010). Paper diagnostic for instantaneous blood typing. Anal. Chem . 82, 4158–4164. doi: 10.1021/ac100341n

Kolbert, E. (2013). Fertilizer, fertility and the clash over population growth. The New Yorker 89.33: 96.

Langer, R., and Tirrell, D. A. (2004). Designing materials for biology and medicine. Nature 428, 487–492. doi: 10.1038/nature02388

Lee, R., Lewis, T., Richardson, D., Stack, L. K., and Garnier, G. (2012). Effect of shear, temperature and pH on the dynamics of salt induced coagulation of wood resin colloids. Colloids Surf. A , 396, 106–114. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2011.12.049

CrossRef Full Text

National Research Council. (2003). Beyond molecular frontiers: challenged for chemistry sciences and chemical engineering . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Nigara, Y., and Gales, B. (1986). Production of carbon monoxide by direct thermal splitting of carbon dioxide at high temperature. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn . 59, 1997–2002. doi: 10.1246/bcsj.59.1997

Schroeder, A., Heller, D. A., Winslow, M. M., Dahlman, J. E., Pratt, G. W., Langer, R., et al. (2011). Treating metastatic cancer with nanotechnology. Nat. Rev. Cancer 12, 39–50. doi: 10.1038/nrc3180

Smil, V. (1999). Detonator of the population explosion. Nature 400, 415. doi: 10.1038/22672

Keywords: grand challenges, chemical engineering, materials and nanotechnology, biomedicine, energy metabolism, green chemistry technology, separation

Citation: Garnier G (2014) Grand challenges in chemical engineering. Front. Chem . 2 :17. doi: 10.3389/fchem.2014.00017

Received: 03 March 2014; Accepted: 24 March 2014; Published online: 09 April 2014.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2014 Garnier. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: [email protected]

  • What is Chemical and Biological Engineering?
  • Engineering problem solving
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  • Engineering in a global context
  • How ‘good’ a solution do you need
  • Steps in solving well-defined engineering process problems, including textbook problems
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  • Teamwork »

Engineering Problem Solving ¶

Some problems are so complex that you have to be highly intelligent and well-informed just to be undecided about them. —Laurence J. Peter

Steps in solving ‘real world’ engineering problems ¶

The following are the steps as enumerated in your textbook:

Collaboratively define the problem

List possible solutions

Evaluate and rank the possible solutions

Develop a detailed plan for the most attractive solution(s)

Re-evaluate the plan to check desirability

Implement the plan

Check the results

A critical part of the analysis process is the ‘last’ step: checking and verifying the results.

Depending on the circumstances, errors in an analysis, procedure, or implementation can have significant, adverse consequences (NASA Mars orbiter crash, Bhopal chemical leak tragedy, Hubble telescope vision issue, Y2K fiasco, BP oil rig blowout, …).

In a practical sense, these checks must be part of a comprehensive risk management strategy.

My experience with problem solving in industry was pretty close to this, though encumbered by numerous business practices (e.g., ‘go/no-go’ tollgates, complex approval processes and procedures).

In addition, solving problems in the ‘real world’ requires a multidisciplinary effort, involving people with various expertise: engineering, manufacturing, supply chain, legal, marketing, product service and warranty, …

Exercise: Problem solving

Step 3 above refers to ranking of alternatives.

Think of an existing product of interest.

What do you think was ranked highest when the product was developed?

Consider what would have happened if a different ranking was used. What would have changed about the product?

Brainstorm ideas with the students around you.

Defining problems collaboratively ¶

Especially in light of global engineering , we need to consider different perspectives as we define our problem. Let’s break the procedure down into steps:

Identify each perspective that is involved in the decision you face. Remember that problems often mean different things in different perspectives. Relevant differences might include national expectations, organizational positions, disciplines, career trajectories, etc. Consider using the mnemonic device “Location, Knowledge, and Desire.”

Location : Who is defining the problem? Where are they located or how are they positioned? How do they get in their positions? Do you know anything about the history of their positions, and what led to the particular configuration of positions you have today on the job? Where are the key boundaries among different types of groups, and where are the alliances?

Knowledge : What forms of knowledge do the representatives of each perspective have? How do they understand the problem at hand? What are their assumptions? From what sources did they gain their knowledge? How did their knowledge evolve?

Desire : What do the proponents of each perspective want? What are their objectives? How do these desires develop? Where are they trying to go? Learn what you can about the history of the issue at hand. Who might have gained or lost ground in previous encounters? How does each perspective view itself at present in relation to those it envisions as relevant to its future?

As formal problem definitions emerge, ask “Whose definition is this?” Remember that “defining the problem clearly” may very well assert one perspective at the expense of others. Once we think about problem solving in relation to people, we can begin to see that the very act of drawing a boundary around a problem has non-technical, or political dimensions, depending on who controls the definition, because someone gains a little power and someone loses a little power.

Map what alternative problem definitions mean to different participants. More than likely you will best understand problem definitions that fit your perspective. But ask “Does it fit other perspectives as well?” Look at those who hold Perspective A. Does your definition fit their location, their knowledge, and their desires? Now turn to those who hold Perspective B. Does your definition fit their location, knowledge, and desires? Completing this step is difficult because it requires stepping outside of one’s own perspective and attempting to understand the problem in terms of different perspectives.

To the extent you encounter disagreement or conclude that the achievement of it is insufficient, begin asking yourself the following: How might I adapt my problem definition to take account of other perspectives out there? Is there some way of accommodating myself to other perspectives rather than just demanding that the others simply recognize the inherent value and rationality of mine? Is there room for compromise among contrasting perspectives?

How ‘good’ a solution do you need ¶

There is also an important aspect of real-world problem solving that is rarely articulated and that is the idea that the ‘quality’ of the analysis and the resources expended should be dependent on the context.

This is difficult to assess without some experience in the particular environment.

How ‘Good’ a Solution Do You Need?

Some rough examples:

10 second answer (answering a question at a meeting in front of your manager or vice president)

10 minute answer (answering a quick question from a colleague)

10 hour answer (answering a request from an important customer)

10 day answer (assembling information as part of a trouble-shooting team)

10 month answer (putting together a comprehensive portfolio of information as part of the design for a new $200,000,000 chemical plant)

Steps in solving well-defined engineering process problems, including textbook problems ¶

Essential steps:

Carefully read the problem statement (perhaps repeatedly) until you understand exactly the scenario and what is being asked.

Translate elements of the word problem to symbols. Also, look for key words that may convey additional information, e.g., ‘steady state’, ‘constant density’, ‘isothermal’. Make note of this additional information on your work page.

Draw a diagram. This can generally be a simple block diagram showing all the input, output, and connecting streams.

Write all known quantities (flow rates, densities, etc.) from step 2 in the appropriate locations on, or near, the diagram. If symbols are used to designate known quantities, include those symbols.

Identify and assign symbols to all unknown quantities and write them in the appropriate locations on, or near, the diagram.

Construct the relevant equation(s). These could be material balances, energy balances, rate equations, etc.

Write down all equations in their general forms. Don’t simplify anything yet.

Discard terms that are equal to zero (or are assumed negligible) for your specific problem and write the simplified equations.

Replace remaining terms with more convenient forms (because of the given information or selected symbols).

Construct equations to express other known relationships between variables, e.g., relationships between stoichiometric coefficients, the sum of species mass fractions must be one.

Whenever possible, solve the equations for the unknown(s) algebraically .

Convert the units of your variables as needed to have a consistent set across your equations.

Substitute these values into the equation(s) from step 7 to get numerical results.

Check your answer.

Does it make sense?

Are the units of the answer correct?

Is the answer consistent with other information you have?

Exercise: Checking results

How do you know your answer is right and that your analysis is correct?

This may be relatively easy for a homework problem, but what about your analysis for an ill-defined ‘real-world’ problem?

MATLAB and Simulink Based Books

Chemical Engineering Computation with MATLAB, 2nd edition

Chemical Engineering Computation with MATLAB, 2nd edition

Yeong Koo Yeo, Hanyang University CRC Press, Inc. , 2021 ISBN: 9780367547820; Language: English

Chemical Engineering Computation with MATLAB, 2nd edition continues to present basic to advanced levels of problem-solving techniques using MATLAB as the computation environment. This edition provides even more examples and problems extracted from core chemical engineering subject areas and all code is updated to MATLAB version 2020. It also includes a new chapter on computational intelligence and:

  • Offers exercises and extensive problem-solving instruction and solutions for various problems
  • Features solutions developed using fundamental principles to construct mathematical models and an equation-oriented approach to generate numerical results
  • Delivers a wealth of examples to demonstrate the implementation of various problem-solving approaches and methodologies for problem formulation, problem solving, analysis, and presentation, as well as visualization and documentation of results
  • Includes an appendix offering an introduction to MATLAB for readers unfamiliar with the program, which will allow them to write their own MATLAB programs and follow the examples in the book
  • Provides aid with advanced problems that are often encountered in graduate research and industrial operations, such as nonlinear regression, parameter estimation in differential systems, two-point boundary value problems and partial differential equations and optimization

This essential textbook readies engineering students, researchers, and professionals to be proficient in the use of MATLAB to solve sophisticated real-world problems within the interdisciplinary field of chemical engineering. The text features a solutions manual, lecture slides, and MATLAB program files.

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problems solved by chemical engineering

Using Excel to Solve Chemical Engineering Problems

problems solved by chemical engineering

  • Jul 22, 2020
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Over the years, it’s become clear to us at ChEnected just how useful Excel is for many chemical engineers. Some of our most popular posts have been tips and tutorials for using spreadsheets to solve chemical engineering problems. 

Since many people right now are looking for ways to hone existing skills or learn something new, we thought we’d suggest you check out our ever-popular chemical engineering spreadsheet tutorial series: Excel Tips for Chemical Engineers . The series includes six essential Excel tips chemical engineers can use to save time – and frustration – at work.

Want more Excel tips for chemical engineers?

If you know you want to delve even deeper than our blog series – or if our Excel tips leave you hungry for more – be sure to check out AIChE’s virtual combo course on spreadsheet problem solving and VBA programming . It’s taught by David E. Clough, the author of the blog series, and combines two of AIChE’s most popular spreadsheet courses, Spreadsheet Problem-Solving for Chemical Engineers and Excel VBA Programming for Chemical Engineers.  

Anurag Mishra's picture

Would like to learn

Keyla Yela's picture

Me gustaría Aprender de este curso.

JOSHUA OCOUN's picture

I also would like to learn

Sonja Bradfield's picture

Here are some courses you can check out on Academy related to Excel: VIRTUAL https://www.aiche.org/academy/courses/ch768vtl/spreadsheet-problem-solving-and-vba-programming-combo-course-virtual<br> https://www.aiche.org/academy/courses/ch764vtl/spreadsheet-problem-solving-chemical-engineers-virtual https://www.aiche.org/academy/courses/ch766vtl/excel-vba-programming-chemical-engineers-virtual ELEARNING https://www.aiche.org/academy/courses/els101/spreadsheet-problem-solving-chemical-engineers?utm_source=academy&utm_medium=site&utm_campaign=eLearninglandingtoELS101

Chemical Engineering - Solved Problems

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Electrical Engineering and Systems Science > Image and Video Processing

Title: robustness and exploration of variational and machine learning approaches to inverse problems: an overview.

Abstract: This paper attempts to provide an overview of current approaches for solving inverse problems in imaging using variational methods and machine learning. A special focus lies on point estimators and their robustness against adversarial perturbations. In this context results of numerical experiments for a one-dimensional toy problem are provided, showing the robustness of different approaches and empirically verifying theoretical guarantees. Another focus of this review is the exploration of the subspace of data consistent solutions through explicit guidance to satisfy specific semantic or textural properties.

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iPhone Battery and Performance

Understand iPhone performance and its relation to your battery.

Your iPhone is designed to be simple and easy to use. This is only possible through a combination of advanced technologies and sophisticated engineering. One important technology area is battery and performance. Batteries are a complex technology, and a number of variables contribute to battery performance and related iPhone performance. All rechargeable batteries are consumables and have a limited lifespan — eventually their capacity and performance decline such that they need to be replaced. Learn more about iPhone batteries and how battery aging can affect iPhone performance.

About lithium-ion batteries

iPhone batteries use lithium-ion technology. Compared with older generations of battery technology, lithium-ion batteries charge faster, last longer, and have a higher power density for more battery life in a lighter package. Rechargeable lithium-ion technology currently provides the best technology for your device. Learn more about lithium-ion batteries .

How to maximize battery performance

“Battery life” is the amount of time a device runs before it needs to be recharged. “Battery lifespan” is the amount of time a battery lasts until it needs to be replaced. One factor affecting battery life and lifespan is the mix of things you do with your device. No matter how you use your device, there are ways to help. A battery’s lifespan is related to its “chemical age,” which is more than just the passage of time. It includes different factors, such as the number of charge cycles and how it was cared for. Follow these tips to maximize battery performance and help extend battery lifespan. For example, keep iPhone half charged when it’s stored for the long term. Also avoid charging or leaving iPhone in hot environments, including direct sun exposure, for extended periods of time.

When batteries chemically age

All rechargeable batteries are consumable components that become less effective as they chemically age.

As lithium-ion batteries chemically age, the amount of charge they can hold diminishes, resulting in shorter amounts of time before a device needs to be recharged. This can be referred to as the battery’s maximum capacity — the measure of battery capacity relative to when it was new. In addition, a battery’s ability to deliver maximum instantaneous performance, or “peak power,” might decrease. For a phone to function properly, the electronics must be able to draw upon instantaneous power from the battery. One attribute that affects this instantaneous power delivery is the battery’s impedance. A battery with a high impedance might be unable to provide sufficient power to the system that needs it. A battery's impedance can increase if a battery has a higher chemical age. A battery’s impedance will temporarily increase at a low state of charge and in a cold temperature environment. When coupled with a higher chemical age, the impedance increase will be more significant. These are characteristics of battery chemistry that are common to all lithium-ion batteries in the industry.

When power is pulled from a battery with a higher level of impedance, the battery’s voltage will drop to a greater degree. Electronic components require a minimum voltage to properly operate. This includes the device’s internal storage, power circuits, and the battery itself. The power management system determines the capability of the battery to supply this power and manages the loads to maintain operations. When the operations can no longer be supported with the full capabilities of the power management system, the system will perform a shutdown to preserve these electronic components. While this shutdown is intentional from the device perspective, it might be unexpected by the user.

Preventing unexpected shutdowns

You're more likely to experience unexpected shutdowns when your battery has a low state of charge, a higher chemical age, or when you're in colder temperatures. In extreme cases, shutdowns can occur more frequently, making the device unreliable or unusable. For iPhone 6, iPhone 6 Plus, iPhone 6s, iPhone 6s Plus, iPhone SE (1st generation), iPhone 7, and iPhone 7 Plus, iOS dynamically manages performance peaks to prevent the device from unexpectedly shutting down, so you can still use your iPhone. This performance management feature is specific to iPhone and doesn't apply to any other Apple products. Starting with iOS 12.1, iPhone 8, iPhone 8 Plus, and iPhone X include this feature; iPhone XS, iPhone XS Max, and iPhone XR include this feature starting with iOS 13.1. Learn about performance management on iPhone 11 and later .

iPhone performance management works by looking at a combination of the device temperature, battery state of charge, and battery impedance. Only if these variables require it, iOS will dynamically manage the maximum performance of some system components, such as the CPU and GPU, in order to prevent unexpected shutdowns. As a result, the device workloads will self-balance, allowing a smoother distribution of system tasks, rather than larger, quick spikes of performance all at once. In some cases, you might not notice any differences in device performance. The level of perceived change depends on how much performance management is required for your device.

In cases that require more extreme performance management, you might notice effects such as:

Longer app launch times

Lower frame rates while scrolling

Backlight dimming (which can be overridden in Control Center)

Lower speaker volume by up to -3dB

Gradual frame rate reductions in some apps

During the most extreme cases, the camera flash will be disabled as visible in the camera UI

Apps refreshing in background might require reloading upon launch

Many key areas aren't affected by this performance management feature. Some of these include:

Cellular call quality and networking throughput performance

Captured photo and video quality

GPS performance

Location accuracy

Sensors like gyroscope, accelerometer, barometer

For a low battery state of charge and colder temperatures, performance-management changes are temporary. If a device battery has chemically aged far enough, performance-management changes might be more lasting. This is because all rechargeable batteries are consumables and have a limited lifespan, eventually needing to be replaced. If you are impacted by this and would like to improve your device performance, replacing your device battery can help.

For iOS 11.3 and later

iOS 11.3 and later improve performance management by periodically assessing the level of performance management necessary to avoid unexpected shutdowns. If the battery health is able to support the observed peak power requirements, the amount of performance management will be lowered. If an unexpected shutdown occurs again, performance management will increase. This assessment is ongoing, allowing more adaptive performance management.

iPhone 8 and later use an advanced hardware and software design that provides a more accurate estimation of both power needs and the battery’s power capability to maximize overall system performance. This allows iOS to anticipate and avoid an unexpected shutdown more precisely. As a result, the effects of performance management might be less noticeable on iPhone 8 and later. Over time, the rechargeable batteries in all iPhone models will diminish in their capacity and peak performance and will eventually need to be replaced.

image alt text

Battery Health

For iPhone 6 and later, iOS 11.3 and later add new features to show battery health and recommend if you need to replace the battery. You can find these in Settings > Battery > Battery Health (with iOS 16.1 or later, find these in Settings > Battery > Battery Health & Charging).

Additionally, you can see if the performance-management feature, which dynamically manages maximum performance to prevent unexpected shutdowns, is on, and you can choose to turn it off. This feature is enabled only after an unexpected shutdown first occurs on a device with a battery that has diminished ability to deliver maximum instantaneous power. This feature applies to iPhone 6, iPhone 6 Plus, iPhone 6s, iPhone 6s Plus, iPhone SE (1st generation), iPhone 7, and iPhone 7 Plus. Starting with iOS 12.1, iPhone 8, iPhone 8 Plus, and iPhone X include this feature; iPhone XS, iPhone XS Max, and iPhone XR include this feature starting with iOS 13.1. Learn about performance management on iPhone 11 and later . The effects of performance management on these newer models might be less noticeable due to their more advanced hardware and software design.

Devices updating from iOS 11.2.6 or earlier will initially have performance management disabled; it will be reenabled if the device subsequently experiences an unexpected shutdown.

All iPhone models include fundamental performance management to ensure that the battery and overall system operates as designed and internal components are protected. This includes behavior in hot or cold temperatures, as well as internal voltage management. This type of performance management is required for safety and expected function, and cannot be turned off.

image alt text

Your battery's maximum capacity

The Battery Health screen includes information on maximum battery capacity and peak performance capability.

Maximum battery capacity measures the device battery capacity relative to when it was new. A battery will have lower capacity as the battery chemically ages, which might result in fewer hours of usage between charges. Depending upon the length of time between when the iPhone was made and when it's activated, your battery capacity might show as slightly less than 100 percent.

Batteries of iPhone 14 models and earlier are designed to retain 80 percent of their original capacity at 500 complete charge cycles under ideal conditions.* Batteries of iPhone 15 models are designed to retain 80 percent of their original capacity at 1000 complete charge cycles under ideal conditions.* With all models, the exact capacity percentage depends on how the devices are regularly used and charged. The one-year warranty includes service coverage for a defective battery in addition to rights provided under local consumer laws. If it is out of warranty, Apple offers battery service for a charge. Learn more about charge cycles.

As your battery health degrades, so can its ability to deliver peak performance. The Battery Health screen includes a section for Peak Performance Capability where the following messages might appear.

Performance is normal

When the battery condition can support normal peak performance and does not have the performance management features applied, you'll see this message:

Your battery is currently supporting normal peak performance.

image alt text

Performance management applied

When the performance management features have been applied, you'll see this message:

This iPhone has experienced an unexpected shutdown because the battery was unable to deliver the necessary peak power. Performance management has been applied to help prevent this from happening again. Disable…

Note that if you disable performance management, you can’t turn it back on. It will be turned on again automatically if an unexpected shutdown occurs. The option to disable will also be available.

image alt text

Battery health unknown

If iOS is unable to determine the device battery health, you'll see this message:

This iPhone is unable to determine battery health. An Apple Authorized Service Provider can service the battery. More about service options…

This might be due to having an improperly installed battery or an unknown battery part.

image alt text

Performance management turned off

If you disable the applied performance-management feature, you'll see this message:

This iPhone has experienced an unexpected shutdown because the battery was unable to deliver the necessary peak power. You have manually disabled performance management protections.

If the device experiences another unexpected shutdown, the performance-management features will be reapplied. The option to disable will also be available.

image alt text

Battery health degraded

If battery health has degraded significantly, the below message will also appear:

Your battery’s health is significantly degraded. An Apple Authorized Service Provider can replace the battery to restore full performance and capacity. More about service options…

This message doesn't indicate a safety issue. You can still use your battery. However, you might experience more noticeable battery and performance issues. A new replacement battery will improve your experience. More about service options .

image alt text

Important Battery Message

If you see the message below, it means the battery in your iPhone is unable to be verified. This message applies to iPhone XS, iPhone XS Max, iPhone XR, and later.

Unable to verify this iPhone has a genuine Apple battery. Health information not available for this battery. Learn more...

Reported battery health information isn't available. To have your battery checked, contact an Apple Authorized Service Provider. More about service options .

Learn more about this message as it appears on iPhone 11 and iPhone 11 Pro and later .

Getting further assistance

If your device performance has been affected by an aged battery and you would like to get help with a battery replacement, contact Apple Support for service options.

Learn more about battery service and recycling .

Recalibration of battery health reporting on iPhone 11, iPhone 11 Pro, and iPhone 11 Pro Max

iOS 14.5 and later include an update to address inaccurate estimates of battery health reporting for some users. The battery health reporting system will recalibrate maximum battery capacity and peak performance capability on iPhone 11, iPhone 11 Pro, and iPhone 11 Pro Max.

Learn more about recalibration of battery health reporting in iOS 14.5 .

* When you use your iPhone, its battery goes through charge cycles. You complete one charge cycle when you’ve used an amount that represents 100 percent of your battery’s capacity. A complete charge cycle is normalized between 80 percent and 100 percent of original capacity to account for expected diminishing battery capacity over time.

Mirabelli embodies interdisciplinary problem solving as assistant DA

2/19/2024 Taylor Parks

Written by Taylor Parks

Dan Mirabelli

“I mostly focus on street-level crimes and handle them from beginning to end,” said Mirabelli, whose cases have included attempted murder, burglary, petty theft, arson, shootings, and firearms trafficking. “It’s a really interesting job because you have a lot of responsibility and gain a lot of experience early in your career.”

The Chicagoland native’s interest in automotives initially drew him to engineering. “I visited U of I and it just felt right the second I was on campus,” he said. “I knew it was where I wanted to be.”

While at Illinois, Mirabelli interned at Senior Flexonics, Garrett Technology, and Cummins Allison. He also worked on the chassis sub-team for the Illini Hyperloop project for his senior design class and took a constitutional law class as an elective the same year.

“In engineering, you can explore different designs, but at some point, the math will show that X equals two and it can only be two,” he said. “With the law, one person can say X equals two and another can say X equals three, and there’s a good argument for both. I found that to be really interesting, and there was still that problem-solving aspect that I love about engineering.”

Mirabelli had found an outlet that satisfied his passions for writing, problem solving, and intellectual discussion. During his first year at the University of Virginia School of Law, he interned in the Cook County state’s attorney’s office. “That’s when I knew I wanted to become a prosecutor,” he said, recalling that witnessing a murder trial in which the prosecutor was able to bring comfort to a grieving family left a deep impression.

Mirabelli in a graduation cap and gown in front of Grainger Library.

The rigors of MechSE’s curriculum would prove valuable for Mirabelli’s future career. “[My problem-solving skills] are by far the most useful things I took from engineering,” he said, noting that the work ethic he refined while studying engineering prepared him well for the long hours and heavy workload that come with his current position.

“One thing I learned from my undergrad experience was that you can’t do things by yourself,” he said of his responsibility to make tough decisions when handling cases. “Not a day goes by that I don’t go into a coworker’s office to discuss a case.”

Indeed, the Manhattan office team support one another every day in achieving the same purpose. “At the end of the day, my duty is to come in and do the right thing. That’s the guiding principle of the job and that’s what guides every conversation I have with coworkers,” he said. “It’s an incredible place to work.”

When it comes to advice for current engineering students, Mirabelli stressed the importance of perseverance. “As a student, I sometimes felt like I was alone in struggling with a topic,” he said. “It’s good to remember that that’s a common experience for everybody. If you persevere, it will work out.”

He also emphasized the value in forging your own educational or career path, even if it looks different from the norm. “It would’ve been easier for me to have said I’m going to leave engineering for an easier major and I’ll still be a lawyer,” he reflected. “But I’m so grateful that I stuck with engineering because I’m much better equipped to do my current job.”

Share this story

This story was published February 19, 2024.

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