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Learning and Development Effectiveness in Organisations pp 99–152 Cite as

The Current State of Research on Training Effectiveness

  • Thomas N. Garavan 11 ,
  • Fergal O’Brien 12 ,
  • James Duggan 13 ,
  • Claire Gubbins 14 ,
  • Yanqing Lai 15 ,
  • Ronan Carbery 16 ,
  • Sinead Heneghan 17 ,
  • Ronnie Lannon 18 ,
  • Maura Sheehan 19 &
  • Kirsteen Grant 20  
  • First Online: 30 July 2020

1458 Accesses

2 Citations

This chapter addresses the current state of research on training effectiveness in organisations. It summarises the key findings on what we know about training effectiveness, the research emphasis given to different components of the model, and how research informs the ways in which organisations should approach learning and development to maximise effectiveness. The chapter highlights the role of training needs analysis, the types of attendance policies that should be used, the most effective design of training delivery to maximise effectiveness, the relative effectiveness of training methods, the organisation of training content, the importance of learning or training transfer, and the types of outcomes that are derived from learning and development.

  • State of learning and development effectiveness research
  • Key research findings on effectiveness
  • Evidence of best practice approaches to learning and development

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Garavan, T.N. et al. (2020). The Current State of Research on Training Effectiveness. In: Learning and Development Effectiveness in Organisations. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48900-7_5

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Training and Development

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Training and Development by Kenneth G. Brown LAST REVIEWED: 13 July 2020 LAST MODIFIED: 26 October 2015 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199846740-0013

Training and development is the study of how structured experiences help employees gain work-related knowledge, skill, and attitudes. It is like many other topics in management in that it is inherently multidisciplinary in nature. At its core is the psychological study of learning and transfer. A variety of disciplines offer insights into this topic, including, but not limited to, industrial and organizational psychology, educational psychology, human resource development, organizational development, industrial and labor relations, strategic management, and labor economics. The focus of this bibliography is primarily psychological with an emphasis on theory and practice that examines training processes and the learning outcomes they seek to influence. Nevertheless, literature from other perspectives will be introduced on a variety of topics within this area of study.

These articles and chapters provide background for the study of training and development, particularly as studied by management scholars with backgrounds in human resource management, organizational behavior, human resource development, and industrial and organizational psychology. Kraiger 2003 examines training from three different perspectives. Aguinis and Kraiger 2009 provides a narrative review of ten years of research on training and employee development, focusing on the many benefits of providing structured learning experiences to employees. Brown and Sitzmann 2011 also reviews the literature and emphasizes research on the processes that are required to ensure that training benefits emerge. Arthur, et al. 2003 meta-analyzes the literature on training effectiveness. Russ-Eft 2002 proposes a typology of training designs. Salas, et al. 2012 offers recommendations for evidence-based training practice. Noe, et al 2014 examines training in a broader context, relative to the roles of informal learning and knowledge transfer.

Aguinis, Herman, and Kurt Kraiger. “Benefits of Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society.” Annual Review of Psychology 60.1 (January 2009): 451–474.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505

A comprehensive review of training and development literature from 1999 to 2009 with an emphasis on the benefits that training offers across multiple levels of analysis.

Arthur, Winfred A., Jr., Winston Bennett Jr., Pamela S. Edens, and Suzanne T. Bell. “Effectiveness of Training in Organizations: A Meta-analysis of Design and Evaluation Features.” Journal of Applied Psychology 88.2 (April 2003): 234–245.

DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.234

Offers a comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationships among training design and evaluation features and various training effectiveness outcomes (reaction, learning, behavior, and results).

Brown, Kenneth G., and Traci Sitzmann. “Training and Employee Development for Improved Performance.” In APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology . Vol. 2, Selecting and Developing Members for the Organization . Edited by Sheldon Zedeck, 469–503. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2011.

DOI: 10.1037/12170-000

A comprehensive review of training and development in work organizations with an emphasis on the processes necessary for training to be effective for improving individual and team performance.

Kraiger, Kurt. “Perspectives on Training and Development.” In Handbook of Psychology . Vol. 12. Edited by Irving B. Weiner and Walter C. Borman, Daniel R. Ilgen, and Richard J. KIlimoski, 171–192. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2003.

DOI: 10.1002/0471264385

Reviews training literature from three perspectives: instruction, learning, and organizational change.

Noe, Raymond A., Alena D. M. Clarke, and Howard J. Klein. “Learning in the Twenty-first-century Workplace.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 1 (2014): 245–275.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091321

A review that places training and development in a broader context with other learning-related interventions and practices such as informal learning and knowledge sharing. The chapter explains factors that facilitate learning in organizations.

Russ-Eft, Darlene. “A Typology of Training Design and Work Environment Factors Affecting Workplace Learning and Transfer.” Human Resource Development Review 1 (March 2002): 45–65.

DOI: 10.1177/1534484302011003

Presents a typology summarizing elements of training and work environments that foster transfer of training.

Salas, Eduardo, Scott I. Tannenbaum, Kurt Kraiger, and Kimberly A. Smith-Jentsch. “The Science of Training and Development in Organizations: What Matters in Practice.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 13.2 (2012): 74–101.

DOI: 10.1177/1529100612436661

Reviews meta-analytic evidence and offers evidence-based recommendations for maximizing training effectiveness.

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A LITERATURE REVIEW ON TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

Profile image of Rahul Mehra

In this competitive world, training plays an important role in the competent and challenging format of business. Training is the nerve that suffices the need of fluent and smooth functioning of work which helps in enhancing the quality of work life of employees and organizational development too. Development is a process that leads to qualitative as well as quantitative advancements in the organization, especially at the managerial level, it is less considered with physical skills and is more concerned with knowledge, values, attitudes and behaviour in addition to specific skills. Hence, development can be said as a continuous process whereas training has specific areas and objectives. So, every organization needs to study the role, importance and advantages of training and its positive impact on development for the growth of the organization. Quality of work life is a process in which the organization recognizes their responsibility for excellence of organizational performance as well as employee skills. Training implies constructive development in such organizational motives for optimum enhancement of quality of work life of the employees. These types of training and development programs help in improving the employee behaviour and attitude towards the job and also uplift their morale. Thus, employee training and development programs are important aspects which are needed to be studied and focused on. This paper focuses and analyses the literature findings on importance of training and development and its relation with the employees' quality of work life.

Related Papers

IAEME Publication

Quality of Work Life (QWL) of employees in any organization plays a very vital role in shaping of both the employees and the organization. The objective of this research is to highlight the prominence of training and development programmes adopted in manufacturing industries encompassing the private and public sectors and the impact that it exerts on the quality of work life of employees in these sectors. It is assumed that employees who undergo T & D programme either in private or public sectors enjoy better QWL. Here a comparative study among the employees of private and public manufacturing industries is carried out to measure the QWL of employees in these respective sectors. Hence the research concludes that the QWL enjoyed by the employees of private industries is superior to the QWL of employees of public industries.

literature review on effectiveness of training and development

Noble Academic Publisher

josiah emmanuel

International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering, Management & Applied Science -IJLTEMAS (www.ijltemas.in)

In this era where competition is increasing day by day in the corporate world training and development has become one of the important key to achieve success. Training is an important subsystem of Human Resource Development. It is a specialized function and is one of the fundamental operative functions for known resource management. Development is a long-term educational process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which managerial personnel get conceptual and theoretical knowledge. Basically, it is an attempt to improve the current or future employee performance of the employee by increasing his or her ability to perform through learning, usually by changing the employee’s attitude or increasing his or her skills and knowledge. These types of training and development programs help in improving the employee behavior and attitude towards the job and also uplift their morale. Thus, employee training and development programs are important aspects which are needed to be studied and focused on. This paper focusses on the advantages of the training and development for the employee’s.

International Journal of Scientific Research in Science and Technology IJSRST

The purpose of this paper is to present a conceptual study established on the employee training and development program and its benefits. This paper will inspect the structure and elements of employee training and development program and later the study present what are the positive outcomes for employees and organizations. Training and development play an important role in the effectiveness of organizations and to the experiences of people in work. Training has implications for productivity, health and safety at work and personal development. Modern organizations therefore use their resources (money, time, energy, information, etc.) for permanent training and advancement of their employees. Training and development is an instrument that aid human capital in exploring their dexterity. Therefore training and development is vital to the productivity of organization " s workforce. The study described here is a vigilant assessment of literature on fundamental of employee development program and its benefits to organizations and employees.

Dr Yashpal D Netragaonkar

“ To Study the Effectiveness of Employees Training & Development Program ”. The prime objective of research is to study the changes in skill , attitude, knowledge, behavior of Employees after Training program. It also studies the effectiveness of Training on both Individual and Organizational levels. Due to this research we are able to absorb current trends related to whole academic knowledge a nd its practical use. Such research is exposed us to set familiar with professional environment, working culture, behavior, oral communication & manners. Since the training is a result oriented process and a lot of time and expenditure, it is necessary tha t the training program should be designed with a great care. For evaluating effectiveness if training a questionnaire has to be carefully prepared for participants in order to receive feedback.

Venkata Sandeep

Tolulope J Ogunleye

Overtime, study had shown that to be relevant in any field of work there is need for continuous learning through training and development. The study is aimed at finding out the need for employees training and development in an organization. The need for improvement to change the phenomenon of low productivity and poor service delivery attributed to the employee’s in-adequate experience, calls for investigation on how effective training and development of employee can facilitate improved corporate performance using the banking industry as a field of discuss.. The study concluded that training and development brings about career growth for the employees and bankers thus the study recommended that all organization must do induction training at entry point into the banking sector.

International Journal of Research Publication (IJRP)

IAEME PUBLICATION

Training and development enables to develop skills and competencies necessary to enhance bottom-line results for their organization. It is a key ingredient for organizational performance improvement. It ensures that randomness is reduced and learning or behavioural change takes place in structured format. Training and Development helps in increasing the job knowledge and skills of employees at each level and helps to expand the horizons of human intellect and an overall personality of the employees. This paper analyses the link between various Training and Development programs organized in Larsen &Toubro Group of Companies and their impacts on employee satisfaction and performance. Data for the paper have been collected through primary source that are from questionnaire, surveys. There were two variables: Training and Development (independent) and Employees satisfaction and performance (dependent). The goal was to see whether Training and development has an impact on employee’s satisfaction and performance

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Home » Research Literature Reviews » Literature Review – Employee Training and Development

Literature Review – Employee Training and Development

Introduction.

Human resources are considered by many to be the most important asset of an organization, yet very few employers are able to harness the full potential from their employees (Radcliffe, 2005). Human resource is a productive resource consisting of the talents and skills of human beings that contribute to the production of goods and services (Kelly, 2001). Lado and Wilson (1994) define human resource system as a set of distinct but interrelated activities, functions, and processes that are directed at attracting, developing, and maintaining a firm’s human resources. According to Gomez-Mejia, Luis R., David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy, (2008), it is the process of ensuring that the organization has the right kind of people in the right places at the right time. The objective of Human Resources is to maximize the return on investment from the organization’s human capital and minimize financial risk. It is the responsibility of human resource managers to conduct these activities in an effective, legal, fair, and consistent manner (Huselid, 1995).

Employee Training and Development

Training and development is a subsystem of an organization that emanate from two independent yet interdependent words training and development. Training is often interpreted as the activity when an expert and learner work together to effectively transfer information from the expert to the learner (to enhance a learner’s knowledge, attitudes or skills) so the learner can better perform a current task or job. Training activity is both focused upon, and evaluated against, the job that an individual currently holds (Learner R., 1986). On the other hand development is often viewed as a broad, ongoing multi-faceted set of activities (training activities among them) to bring someone or an organization up to another threshold of performance. This development often includes a wide variety of methods, e.g., orienting about a role, training in a wide variety of areas, ongoing training on the job, coaching, mentoring and forms of self-development. Some view development as a life-long goal and experience. Development focuses upon the activities that the organization employing the individual, or that the individual is part of, may partake in the future, and is almost impossible to evaluate (Nadler Leonard, 1984).

Training and development ensures that randomness is reduced and learning or behavioral change takes place in structured format. In the field of human resource management , training and development is the field concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and groups in organizational settings. It has been known by several names, including employee development, human resource development , and learning and development (Harrison Rosemary, 2005).

As the generator of new knowledge, employee training and development is placed within a broader strategic context of human resources management , i.e. global organizational management, as a planned staff education and development, both individual and group, with the goal to benefit both the organization and employees. To preserve its obtained positions and increase competitive advantage , the organization needs to be able to create new knowledge , and not only to rely solely on utilization of the existing (Vemic, 2007). Thus, the continuous employee training and development has a significant role in the development of individual and organizational performance . The strategic procedure of employee training and development needs to encourage creativity, ensure inventiveness and shape the entire organizational knowledge that provides the organization with uniqueness and differentiates it from the others.

The Value of Training and Development

According to Beardwell & Holden (1997) human resource management has emerged as a set of prescriptions for managing people at work. Its central claim is that by matching the size and skills of the workforce to the productive requirements of the organization, and by raising the quality of individual employee contributions to production, organizations can make significant improvements on their performance.

The environment of an organization refers to the sum total of the factors or variables that may influence the present and future survival of an organization (Armstrong, 1998). The factors may be internal or external to the organization. Cascio W. F, (1995), uses the terms societal environment to define the varying trends and general forces that do not relate directly to the company but could impact indirectly on the company at some point in time. Four of these forces are identified as economic, technological, legal and political and socio-cultural and demographic forces. The second type of environment is the task environment that comprises elements directly influencing the operations and strategy of the organization. These may include the labour market, trade unions, competition and product markets comprising customers, suppliers and creditors. The task environment elements are directly linked to the company and are influenced by the societal environment.

However, variables in the task, competitive or operative environment as they are variously referred to, affect organizations in a specific industry and it is possible to control them to some extent. As such, environmental change, whether remote or task, disrupts the equilibrium that exists between the organization’s strategy and structure, necessitating adjustment to change. Pfeffer (1998) proposes that there is evidence demonstrating that effectively managed people can produce substantially enhanced economic performance. Pfeffer extracted from various studies, related literature, and personal observation and experience a set of seven dimensions that seem to characterize most if not all of the systems producing profits through people. He named them the seven practices of successful organizations and they are: employment security, selective hiring of new personnel, self-managed teams and decentralization of decision making as the basic principles of organizational design, comparatively high compensation contingent on organizational performance , extensive training, reduced status distinctions and barriers, including dress, language, office arrangements, and wage differences across levels, and extensive sharing of financial and performance information throughout the organization.

Effect of Training and Development on Employee Productivity

McGhee (1997) stated that an organization should commit its resources to a training activity only if, in the best judgment of managers, the training can be expected to achieve some results other than modifying employee behavior. It must support some organizational goals , such as more efficient production or distribution of goods and services, product operating costs, improved quality or more efficient personal relations is the modification of employees behavior affected through training should be aimed at supporting organization objectives.

Effect of Training and Development on Employee Motivation

Motivation is concerned with the factors that influence people to behave in certain ways. Arnold etal (1991), have listed the components as being, direction-what a person is trying to do, effort- how hard a person is trying to and persistence- how long a person keeps on trying. Motivating other people is about getting them to move in the direction you want them to go in order to achieve a result, well motivated people are those with clearly defined goals who take action that they expect will achieve those goals. Motivation at work can take place in two ways. First, people can motivate themselves by seeking, finding and carrying out that which satisfies their needs or at least leads them to expect that their goals will be achieved. Secondly, management can motivate people through such methods as pay, promotion, praise and training (Synderman 1957). The organization as a whole can provide the context within which high levels of motivation can be achieved training the employees in areas of their job performance.

Effect of Training and Development on Competitive Advantage

Competitive advantage is the essence of competitive strategy . It encompasses those capabilities, resources, relationships, and decisions, which permits an organization to capitalize on opportunities in the marketplace and to avoid threats to its desired position, (Lengnick-Hall 1990). Boxall and Purcell (1992) suggest that ‘human resource advantage can be traced to better people employed in organizations with better processes.’ This echoes the resource based view of the firm, which states that ‘distinctive human resource practices help to create the unique competences that determine how firms compete’ (Capelli and Crocker- Hefter, 1996). Intellectual capital is the source of competitive advantage for organizations. The challenge is to ensure that firms have the ability to find, assimilate, compensate, and retain human capital in shape of talented individual who can drive a global organization that both responsive to its customer and ‘the burgeoning opportunities of technology’ (Armstrong, 2005)

Effect of Training and Development on Customer Relations

William Edward Deming , one of the quality Gurus defines quality as a predictable degree of uniformity and dependability at low costs and suitable to the market, he advises that an organization should focus on the improvement of the process as the system rather than the work is the cause of production variation (Gale 1994). Many service organizations have embraced this approach of quality assurance by checking on the systems and processes used to deliver the end product to the consumer.  Essentially this checks on; pre-sale activities which encompass the advice and guidance given to a prospective client, customer communications ( how well the customers are informed of the products and services, whether there are any consultancy services provided to help the customers assess their needs and any help line available for ease of access to information on products), the speed of handling a client’s transactions and processing of claims, the speed of handling customers calls and the number of calls abandoned or not answered, on the selling point of Products/Services a customer would be interested to know   about the opening   hours of the organization, the convenience of the location and such issues (Gale 1994). This is only possible when employees are well trained and developed to ensure sustainability of the same.

  • Armstrong, M (1998): Human Resource Management: Strategy and Action, Irwin, Boston
  • Betcherman, G., K. McMullen and K. Davidman (1998), Training for the New Economy: A Synthesis Report, Canadian Policy Research Network, Ottawa, pp. 117
  • Cascio, W. F. (1995). Whither industrial and organizational psychology in a changing world of work?American Psychologist, 50, 928—939
  • Harrison Rosemary (2005). Learning and Development.CIPD Publishing. pp.  5
  • Huselid, M. A. (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity and corporate financial performance, Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 635-672
  • Kelly D, (2001), Dual Perceptions of HRD: Issues for Policy: SME’s, Other Constituencies, and the Contested Definitions of Human Resource Development,
  • Lado, A., & Wilson, M. (1994) Human resource systems and sustained competitive advantage: A competency-based perspective, Academy of Management Journal, 19(4), 699-727
  • Learner, R. (1986).Concepts and Theories of Human Development (2nd ed.). New York: Random House).
  • Nadler, Leonard (1984). The Handbook of Human Resource Development (Glossary). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Pfeffer J., (1998), The Human Equation; Building Profits by Putting People First, HBS press, Boston
  • Tessema, M. and Soeters, J. (2006) Challenges and prospects of HRM in developing countries: testing the HRM-performance link in Eritrean civil service, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(1), 86 -105

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  • Open access
  • Published: 12 February 2024

Development of low back pain curriculum content standards for entry-level clinical training

  • Hazel J. Jenkins   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0535-687X 1 ,
  • Benjamin T. Brown   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3064-8815 1 ,
  • Mary O’Keeffe 2 ,
  • Niamh Moloney   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5957-7224 3 ,
  • Chris G. Maher   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1628-7857 4 &
  • Mark Hancock   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9277-5377 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  136 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The management of low back pain (LBP) is highly variable and patients often receive management that is not recommended and/or miss out on recommended care. Clinician knowledge and behaviours are strongly influenced by entry-level clinical training and are commonly cited as barriers to implementing evidence-based management. Currently there are no internationally recognised curriculum standards for the teaching of LBP content to ensure graduating clinicians have the appropriate knowledge and competencies to assess and manage LBP. We formed an international interdisciplinary working group to develop curriculum content standards for the teaching of LBP in entry-level clinical training programs.

The working group included representatives from 11 countries: 18 academics and clinicians from healthcare professions who deal with the management of LBP (medicine, physiotherapy, chiropractic, osteopathy, pharmacology, and psychology), seven professional organisation representatives (medicine, physiotherapy, chiropractic, spine societies), and one healthcare consumer. A literature review was performed, including database and hand searches of guidelines and accreditation, curricula, and other policy documents, to identify gaps in current LBP teaching and recommended entry-level knowledge and competencies. The steering group (authors) drafted the initial LBP Curriculum Content Standards (LBP-CCS), which were discussed and modified through two review rounds with the working group.

Sixty-two documents informed the draft standards. The final LBP-CCS consisted of four broad topics covering the epidemiology, biopsychosocial contributors, assessment, and management of LBP. For each topic, key knowledge and competencies to be achieved by the end of entry-level clinical training were described.

We have developed the LBP-CCS in consultation with an interdisciplinary, international working group. These standards can be used to inform or benchmark the content of curricula related to LBP in new or existing entry-level clinical training programs.

Peer Review reports

Low back pain (LBP) is a common condition and the leading cause of years lived with disability worldwide [ 1 ]. While individual episodes of LBP may resolve quickly with minimal intervention, LBP recurrence and the development of persistent pain are also common and contribute to the overall healthcare burden associated with LBP [ 2 , 3 ]. Clinical practice guidelines are available to guide the appropriate management of LBP and improve patient outcomes [ 4 , 5 ]. Despite these recommendations, however, the management of LBP is highly variable [ 6 ]. Many patients receive management that is not recommended in current guidelines (e.g., imaging, opioids) and/or miss out on the care that is recommended (e.g., education, exercise). Both these problems may lead to poorer patient outcomes [ 4 , 6 ].

Strategies to educate clinicians and implement best-evidence and guideline recommendations into clinical practice have been attempted, with little current evidence of success [ 7 ]. Researchers have identified that a clinician’s beliefs, perceptions and level of clinical knowledge may influence the uptake of LBP guideline recommendations into clinical practice [ 8 ]. In particular, the influence of formal entry-level clinical training has been highlighted as a potential barrier to the uptake of clinical practice guidelines for LBP [ 8 , 9 ], and conversely, that changing student beliefs and attitudes about LBP in clinical training programs may facilitate more guideline-adherent practice in future clinicians [ 10 ].

Entry-level clinical training programs refer to undergraduate or postgraduate programs that train clinicians to enter healthcare professions [ 11 ]. Education related to LBP is variable across training programs, both within and between different healthcare professions. The time spent delivering LBP or general pain management content varies considerably across different clinical training programs [ 9 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Furthermore, gaps have been identified in different clinical training programs with regards to student knowledge and competencies related to LBP [ 10 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ], confidence in ability to manage LBP on graduation [ 23 , 24 , 25 ], and alignment with LBP clinical guideline recommendations [ 12 , 26 ].

Appropriate LBP curriculum content within entry-level clinical training programs is needed to ensure that healthcare professionals are graduating with the knowledge and skills needed to deliver high-quality evidence-based care in clinical practice. Curriculum content standards are defined as the curriculum needed to equip clinicians with the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary at the time of graduation [ 27 ]. Currently, while core competencies for clinical training programs as a whole have been developed [ 28 ], there are no specific content standards to guide teaching for LBP. Therefore, we aimed to develop the first curriculum content standards for the teaching of LBP in entry-level clinical training programs worldwide.

Overview and scope of the development of the low back pain curriculum content standards

An international, interdisciplinary working group, led by a steering group (authors), was formed to develop the Low Back Pain Curriculum Content Standards (LBP-CCS) using an iterative process. An initial literature review was performed by the steering group to identify the range of content to be included in the LBP-CCS. The content and structure of the LBP-CCS was then modified through two rounds of group discussion and feedback from the working group. The final version of the LBP-CCS was approved by all members of the working group. Ethical approval was not required for the development of the LBP-CCS as no participants or participant data were recruited or collected. All members of the working group who contributed to the LBP-CCS are acknowledged in this publication.

The LBP-CCS were developed to include a complete list of content items necessary for comprehensive education on LBP epidemiology, diagnosis, and management. Input into the development was sought from a diverse range of healthcare professions involved in the management of LBP. The working group recognised that different healthcare professions may require different levels of knowledge related to the diagnosis and management of LBP. Therefore, the LBP-CCS were designed to provide guidance that can be implemented to the appropriate level for individual entry-level clinical training programs.

Formation of the working group

The steering group (authors) identified professional organisations, academics, researchers, clinicians, and consumers to invite to participate in the development of the LBP-CCS. International professional organisations with interest in the management of LBP in primary care were invited to be involved in the development of the LBP-CCS. Organisations agreeing to be involved were asked to nominate a representative to be part of the working group. Other potential working group members were purposively invited to achieve a spread of different occupational and clinical backgrounds, sex, and geographic location.

Of 15 organisations approached, seven agreed to participate in the LBP-CCS development and provide representatives to join the working group. Participating organisations included: International Society for the Study of the Lumbar Spine (ISSLS), International Federation of Orthopaedic Manipulative Physical Therapists (IFOMPT) on behalf of World Physiotherapy (WP), World Federation of Chiropractic (WFC), European Pain Federation (EFIC), Musculoskeletal Association of Chartered Physiotherapists (MACP), and Council of Physiotherapy Deans Australia and New Zealand (CPDANZ). Responses were not received from the remaining organisations approached, which included invitations to medical and osteopathic organisations. A further 22 academics, researchers, clinicians, or healthcare consumers were invited to join the working group, with 19 accepting, leading to a final working group of 32 participants (including the steering group). The spread of occupational backgrounds, sex, and geographic locations represented within the working group is presented in Table  1 .

Literature review to inform development of the low back pain curriculum content standards

The steering group conducted an initial review of the literature to establish a draft list of content to be included in the LBP-CCS. Three search strategies were used to find relevant literature:

Medline (OVID), Embase (OVID), CINAHL, and PsycInfo were searched from inception to March, 2022 to identify current gaps in entry-level clinical education related to LBP. Search terms related to: (i) LBP; (ii) curriculum/knowledge; and (iii) healthcare students. Searches were developed for each database and are available in Additional file 1 . Articles were screened by one member of the steering group (HJ) and were included if the article assessed or discussed LBP or pain education in an entry-level clinical training program. ‘Education’ could relate to any of the following: required competencies, learning outcomes, identified gaps, student preparedness for clinical practice, or alignment with evidenced-based practice or clinical practice guidelines. Articles discussing clinical practice with respect to the required competencies or knowledge needed from entry-level clinical training were also included. Clinical training programs could relate to any healthcare profession that requires training in LBP epidemiology, diagnosis, or management.

Clinical practice guidelines and accreditation documents, identifying required competencies or knowledge for healthcare clinicians related to the management of LBP, were identified by the steering group. To be included, clinical practice guidelines needed to be related to the multidisciplinary management of LBP in primary care, be produced by a national organisation, and be informed by literature review. A published overview of clinical practice guidelines [ 5 ] meeting these criteria was used to identify guidelines for inclusion. A search was performed for updates to the guidelines identified in the overview, with the most recent version included. National and international accreditation documents were included if they related to entry-level clinical training programs in medicine, physiotherapy, or chiropractic, and were written in English. Summary documents, collating information across multiple clinical guidelines or accreditation documents, were used where available.

The working group was asked to recommend documents, including curriculum and policy documents and new or updated guidelines not captured by the above process, that they considered appropriate to inform the development of the LBP-CCS.

From each included article or document, one of the steering group (HJ, BB, MO, MH) extracted the key findings, gaps, or requirements related to LBP education that were identified and categorised as content/knowledge and skills/competencies required.

Iterative development of the low back pain curriculum content standards

The first iteration of the LBP-CCS was developed by the steering group. The extracted data from the literature review were collated by one of the steering group (HJ) under broad topic headings. These topic headings were then discussed with the members of the steering group to determine an initial topic structure. The extracted data were then collated into the topic structure, with consolidation of individual items where there was duplication of data. It was not considered within the scope of the development of the LBP-CCS to evaluate the strength of available evidence and provide specific recommendations on how the content should be taught. Instead, the aim of the LBP-CCS was to provide high-level guidance of the content topics to be included within curriculum for LBP and be taught within an evidenced-based framework.

Two rounds of review, including group discussion and written feedback, were held with the working group to determine any necessary changes to the draft LBP-CCS. For each review round, members of the working group were provided with the latest iteration of the LBP-CCS and a feedback document, including the questions to be reviewed within group discussion and opportunity to provide more specific written feedback on each element of the LBP-CCS. Multiple online discussion groups were held to accommodate time-zone differences and enable all working group members to attend a session. Each discussion group was recorded (with permission of the working group members in attendance) and had at least two of the steering group members in attendance, to moderate the group discussion and record notes. The review questions were discussed within each group. Key discussion points from groups were also presented at subsequent groups within the same round to encourage further discussion. After each of the review rounds, both the feedback from the discussion groups and feedback documents were collated, qualitatively summarised, and a list of potential changes developed and discussed within the steering group. Where feedback was conflicting, potential changes were suggested in alignment with the majority of opinions from the working group and flagged for discussion within the next working group review. For each new iteration of the LBP-CCS, a summary of the changes was provided to the working group and discussed within the following review round. In this way, the working group were able to provide feedback on the changes which were incorporated into the following review round.

Literature review

The database search returned 577 articles, of which 57 were screened for full-text and 34 were included for data extraction. A previously published paper summarising 15 clinical practice guidelines from Africa, Australia, Brazil, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Malaysia, Mexico, the Netherlands, Philippine, Spain, the USA, and the UK was used to extract clinical guideline recommendations [ 5 ]. Updates to two of the 15 guidelines were identified and used to extract guideline recommendations [ 29 , 30 ]. Ten accreditation documents were sourced from international and regional (North America, Australasia, Europe) accrediting bodies for medical, physiotherapy, and chiropractic entry-level clinical training programs. On assessing these accreditation documents, we decided not to source accreditation documents from other healthcare professions, as no criteria or competencies specific to LBP were found within the sourced documents. Seventeen additional documents were identified by the working group including clinical care standards, a musculoskeletal education framework, curriculum documents, and LBP overview papers. No new or updated clinical practice guidelines were identified by the working group. The complete list of documents used to inform the development of the LBP-CCS is available in Additional file 2 .

First iteration

Data from the literature review were collated under 12 topic headings as described in Table  2 . The steering group determined the structure of the first iteration to include: (i) the overarching objectives of the LBP-CCS; and (ii) 10 topic headings outlining the content to be included (Table  2 ). The individual content items were listed under: (i) principles; (ii) knowledge; and (iii) skills. The sub-heading ‘principles’ was intended to capture context to clarify the intent of the required knowledge and skills for each topic. For example, under the topic ‘Investigations’ one of the principles was for clinicians to consider whether investigation findings will substantially alter patient management; whereas, the associated knowledge item required that clinicians know the risks and benefits of the proposed investigations. The related skills item in this example stated that clinicians should be able to order and interpret investigations appropriately.

Second iteration

The first round of review with the working group was used to inform the second iteration of the LBP-CCS. The first review round focused on: (i) the appropriateness of the topic structure; (ii) the level of detail included within the content items and whether more specific recommendations should be made; (iii) the inclusion of content items not specific to LBP education (e.g., communication skills, clinical reasoning); and (iv) specific feedback on the individual content items or suggestions for additional/missing content items. The general structure of the document was agreed to be appropriate; however, a preamble to provide context to the document was thought necessary and suggestions were made to integrate some of the existing topic headings to improve the flow of the document and reduce repetition (Table  2 ). While the separation of ‘Principles’, ‘Knowledge’, and ‘Skills’ under each topic heading was considered important, the working group thought that ‘Principles’ should be replaced with an explanatory statement under each topic heading to explain alignment within the current evidence-base. The working group preferred the term ‘Competency’ to ‘Skills’ to reflect the move of many academic programs to competency-based teaching and assessment.

The working group agreed that the LBP-CCS should provide the general topics of content to be included (e.g., the risks and benefits of management options for LBP) rather than provide the specific evidenced-based recommendations (e.g., opioids should not be used in the management of LBP). This was to ensure that the LBP-CCS would be appropriate to use across different entry-level training programs and that the LBP-CCS would not become out-dated as new evidence becomes available. It was considered important, however, that the preamble clearly outline the need to apply the LBP-CCS within an evidenced-based context as appropriate for the clinical training program and local context/culture. A ‘Suggested resource’ section was also recommended to provide current evidence-based resources that could be used to inform application of the LBP-CCS. Regular review and update of the LBP-CCS (e.g., every five-years) was recommended to ensure that the standards align with emerging research findings. The inclusion of items not specific to LBP education but important in the development of appropriate patient management (e.g., patient communication, clinical reasoning), were considered essential. However, it was suggested that these be integrated within the items specific to LBP rather than included as stand-alone content items (e.g., ‘Synthesise clinical assessment findings and communicate a meaningful explanation of their LBP to the patient’).

Finally, feedback related to the specific content items was incorporated into the second iteration of the LBP-CCS. This included the addition of new content items and the removal/rewording of some content items to limit repetition, increase the consistency of language throughout the document, and increase the focus on some content items.

Third iteration

The second round of review with the working group was used to inform the third, and final, iteration of the LBP-CCS. The second review round focused on: (i) the appropriateness of the new sections of the LBP-CCS (preamble, explanatory statements, suggested resources); (ii) the structure/flow of the topic headings and included content items; and (iii) specific feedback on the individual content items. Overall, there was support for the new sections of the LBP-CCS, with some minor changes or additional resources suggested. Within the discussion groups it was highlighted that there were some differences in the interpretation of terms/words between members of the working group. The addition of a glossary to define common terms within the document was recommended. The topic flow was considered improved from the first iteration; however, to further improve the flow, it was suggested that the ‘Clinical assessment’ and ‘Investigations’ topics be collapsed together, and to integrate the ‘Low back pain diagnosis and classification’ topic across the remaining topics. The final topic structure is presented in Table  2 . The third iteration of the LBP-CCS was approved for dissemination and implementation by all members of the working group. The final LBP-CCS is available in Additional file 3 .

Key findings

We have developed curriculum content standards for LBP education in entry-level clinical training programs. The content items included in the LBP-CCS were informed by current literature, clinical practice guidelines, accreditation requirements, and other policy documents. The structure and content of the LBP-CCS were reviewed through three iterations and approved by an interdisciplinary international working group. The developed LBP-CCS are ready to be implemented in entry-level clinical training programs to inform the development or review of LBP curriculum and ensure that graduates have the knowledge and competencies required to deliver high-quality care to patient with LBP in clinical practice. The LBP-CCS will be reviewed and updated periodically to ensure that it remains current.

Comparison to previous literature

To our knowledge, curriculum content standards for LBP entry-level clinical training have not been previously developed. Current clinical practice guidelines [ 5 ] and clinical care standards for LBP [ 6 ] that exist have been developed to inform clinical practice for qualified clinicians with existing knowledge about LBP. Instead, we developed the LBP-CCS to focus on the curriculum requirements for entry-level clinical students with no prior knowledge of LBP. For example, clinical guidelines tend to focus on the appropriate assessment and management of LBP [ 5 ] and do not provide details of required knowledge related to the epidemiology and course of LBP that underpins clinical reasoning and management decisions. A similar outline of recommended curriculum content in healthcare programs has been developed for pain education as a whole (IASP Interprofessional Pain Curriculum Outline) [ 31 ]; however, this does not include details specific to LBP that are important to highlight within entry-level clinical training. For example, imaging is rarely recommended in the assessment of LBP and inappropriate use has been associated with poorer patient outcomes [ 32 ]; details such as determining the appropriate use of imaging can be highlighted more specifically in the LBP-CCS rather than within curriculum content for general pain [ 31 ], where the concept may not be relevant for all pain presentation types.

Strengths and limitations

A systematic and rigorous approach was used to develop the LBP-CCS. The working group was selected to ensure representation across diverse healthcare professions involved in the management of LBP, geographic locations, and professional backgrounds with academic, clinician, and consumer involvement. Eleven countries across 5 continents were represented within the working group; however, there was an underrepresentation of developing countries (1/11, 9%). Similar concerns related to the implementation of best-practice care for LBP have been identified globally [ 4 ], and, therefore, similar education requirements are likely to be needed. However, curriculum content requirements for developing countries may not have been completely explored. We therefore recommend, in the preamble to the LBP-CCS, that the LBP-CCS be implemented with consideration of the local context and environment. Physiotherapists and chiropractors commonly manage patients with LBP in primary care, which is reflected in more hours on LBP education in entry-level clinical training programs [ 12 ]. Therefore, we included larger proportions of physiotherapists and chiropractors within the working group to ensure that the LBP-CCS reflected the content required by programs with a stronger focus on LBP education. Moving forward, we intend to develop modified versions of the LBP-CCS for healthcare professions that are involved in the management of LBP but have different educational needs, such as medicine, pharmacy, clinical psychology, clinical exercise physiology, occupational therapy, and nursing. The current version can still be used to inform the education of all health professionals who treat people with LBP, but individual programs will need to consider the level of detail required.

The first iteration of the LBP-CCS was informed by a review of the literature and other professional policy documents. The literature search was performed in March, 2022 and new literature or guideline documents may change the content of the LBP-CCS. To minimise this limitation, regular review of the literature is planned by the steering group to ensure that the LBP-CCS remain current. The working group did not identify any new or updated clinical practice guidelines during the development process; however, the World Health Organization have published new guidelines for the management of chronic LBP since the development process concluded (December, 2023) [ 33 ]. The new guidelines have been assessed by the steering committee, and the guideline messages are consistent with the LBP-CCS. A sparsity of literature related to LBP education was identified from healthcare professions other than medicine, physiotherapy, chiropractic, and osteopathy; potentially highlighting gaps in other professions in identifying educational requirements related to LBP. The second and third iterations of the LBP-CCS were informed by review from the working group and all members of the working group approved the final iteration.

The LBP-CCS provides LBP educational content that should be feasible to incorporate into entry-level clinical training. Achieving a balance between providing constructive guidelines without dictating how the content should be taught is challenging. Highly prescriptive content recommendations (e.g., do not prescribe opioids in the management of LBP) might hold benefits of greater consistency of content across clinical training programs without individual interpretation. However, the exact recommendations to be included would be difficult to agree upon, would likely be nuanced depending on healthcare profession or geographic region (as seen in clinical guidelines from different regions [ 5 ]), and would need to be more frequently updated as specific knowledge evolves. The working group agreed that the content included in the LBP-CCS be less prescriptive to maintain flexibility of use. However, the content of the LBP-CCS is, therefore, more open to individual interpretation. Strategies were included to minimise negative effects of individual interpretation, including: (i) explanation of the need to reflect on current evidence; (ii) the use of explanatory statements to provide context to each topic; and (iii) the provision of high-quality suggested resources to inform use of the LBP-CCS.

Implementation of the low back pain curriculum content standards

The LBP-CCS have been designed to be used in entry-level clinical training programs for future healthcare clinicians involved in the assessment or management of patients presenting with LBP. The LBP-CCS can be used to guide the development of content in new programs or revise/benchmark content in existing programs. It must be noted that the time available to teach content related to LBP in different clinical training programs may differ considerably, which will impact the degree of detail to which the LBP-CCS can be implemented. For example, in an Australian study the number of hours related to the teaching of spinal assessment and management ranged from 2 h in pharmacy training to 310 h in chiropractic training [ 12 ]. In addition, the level of detail required for each item within the LBP-CCS may differ between clinical training programs and healthcare professions. For example, pharmacy programs would need to teach more detail related to the use of pharmaceutical management options for LBP, whereas physiotherapy programs would need to teach more detail on exercise and manual therapy options. Therefore, the LBP-CCS has been designed to provide high-level guidance regarding the content that should be covered, while acknowledging that the implementation of the LBP-CCS within individual academic programs may vary depending upon numerous factors. Moving forward, the development of profession-specific versions of the LBP-CCS, informed by professional representatives, could be considered to identify the content of most importance for each profession, while recognising time restraints within training programs.

Wide-spread dissemination of the LBP-CCS is essential to facilitate global uptake and produce change in LBP education standards. The LBP-CCS and associated resources are freely available online [ 34 ] and these will be disseminated to entry-level clinical training programs worldwide. Dissemination will occur through endorsing organisations, including professional organisations with global reach, working group members, and directly to entry-level clinical training programs.

We have developed the LBP-CCS in consultation with an interdisciplinary, international working group. These standards can be used to develop or benchmark the content of curriculum related to LBP in new or existing entry-level clinical training programs. Use of the LBP-CCS will help to increase the consistency and quality of LBP education.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

  • Low back pain

Low Back Pain Curriculum Content Standards

International Society for the Study of the Lumbar Spine

International Federation of Orthopaedic Manipulative Physical Therapists

World Physiotherapy

World Federation of Chiropractic

European Pain Federation

Musculoskeletal Association of Chartered Physiotherapists

Council of Physiotherapy Deans Australia and New Zealand

International Association for the Study of Pain

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge and thank the members of the Low Back Pain Curriculum Content Standards working group for their involvement in the development of the Low Back Pain Curriculum Content Standards: Fiona Blyth (Medicine– general practice, Australia); Dawn Carnes (Osteopathy, England); Chad Cook (Physiotherapy, America); Ben Darlow (Physiotherapy, Primary health care, New Zealand); Renee de Ruijter (IFOMPT representative, Physiotherapy, Switzerland); Julie Fritz (Physiotherapy, America); Brona Fullen (EFIC representative, Physiotherapy, Ireland); Doug Gross (Physiotherapy, Canada); Jill Hayden (Chiropractic, Canada); Jonathan Hill (Physiotherapy, England); Jaro Karppinen (Medicine– physical and rehabilitation medicine, Finland); Greg Kawchuk (Chiropractic, Canada); Alice Kongsted (Chiropractic, Denmark); Deborah Kopansky-Giles (WFC representative, Chiropractic, Canada); Henrik Hein Lauridsen (Chiropractic, Denmark); Michael Lee (CPDANZ representative, Chiropractic, Physiotherapy, Australia); Quinette Louw (Physiotherapy, South Africa); Kerry Mace (Consumer, Australia); James McAuley (Psychology, Australia); Andrew McLachlan (Pharmacy, Australia); Chris Mercer (MACP representative, Physiotherapy, England); Peter O’Sullivan (Physiotherapy, Australia); Sue Reid (Physiotherapy, Australia); Anna Ryan (Medicine, Chiropractic, Australia); Paolo Sanzo (IFOMPT representative, Physiotherapy, Canada); Edward Vresilovic (ISSLS representative, Medicine– orthopaedic surgery, America); Arnold Wong (Physiotherapy, Hong Kong).

No funding was obtained to support the development of the LBP-CCS.

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Hazel J. Jenkins, Benjamin T. Brown & Mark Hancock

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HJ formed and led the steering group, was involved in the design of the development process, formed the working group, performed the literature review, extracted data, drafted each iteration of the LBP-CCS, led the review of the LBP-CCS by the working group, reviewed all iterations of the LBP-CCS, and approved the final version. MH was a member of the steering group, was involved in the design of the development process, formed the working group, extracted data, reviewed all iterations of the LBP-CCS, and approved the final version. BB was a member of the steering group, was involved in the design of the development process, formed the working group, extracted data, reviewed all iterations of the LBP-CCS, and approved the final version. MO was a member of the steering group, was involved in the design of the development process, formed the working group, extracted data, reviewed all iterations of the LBP-CCS, and approved the final version. CM was a member of the steering group, was involved in the design of the development process, formed the working group, reviewed all iterations of the LBP-CCS, and approved the final version. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Jenkins, H.J., Brown, B.T., O’Keeffe, M. et al. Development of low back pain curriculum content standards for entry-level clinical training. BMC Med Educ 24 , 136 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05086-x

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College of Nursing

Leveraging implementation science with using decision support technology to drive meaningful change for nurses and nursing leadership.

View as pdf A later version of this article appeared in  Nurse Leader ,  Volume 21, Issue 6 , December 2023 . 

Abstract Technology, such as clinical decision support, can play a role in supporting nurses’ decision making, but understanding the complexity and current challenges in nurse decision-making is needed to guide the implementation of technology interventions focused on supporting effective decision-making in practice and leadership. The purpose of this article is to discuss decision-making and information needs among nurses across roles and explain how technology and implementation science approaches can complement effective decision-making interventions.

Across settings and nursing roles, effective decision-making is fundamental to excellent nursing and patient care. For example, nurses in patient care roles often spend more time with patients than any other health discipline and frequently need to make decisions about when to inform the health care team with changes in a patient’s condition. Nurses in leadership roles must make a wide range of managerial decisions concerning nurse staffing, human resources, and which clinical technologies to advocate for the support direct care nurses’ decision-making. Factors such as increasing patient acuity, escalating evidence base, and global pandemics have led to increased complexity in nurse decision-making across roles. Technology can play a role in supporting nurses’ decision making, but understanding the complexity and current challenges in nurse decision-making is needed to guide the implementation of technology interventions focused on supporting effective decision-making in practice and leadership. The purpose of this article is to discuss decision-making and information needs among nurses across roles and explain how technology and implementation science approaches can complement effective decision-making interventions.

Decision-making Across Nursing

Decision-making, or executing a choice among options, is an essential process in nursing and numerous theories and models have been developed to describe and study nurse decision-making. 1-3 Approaches to decision-making can be broadly categorized as rational, using logical steps or rule-based thinking to determine the best option, or intuitive, which describes using instinct or subconscious pattern recognition to make a choice. 4  Over time, thinking has transformed from viewing nurse decision-making as primarily a rational process, to a process that is influenced by real-world demands, such as needing to make decisions with limited information, changing conditions, interruptions, and/or time pressure. 5,6 In these situations, experienced nurses rapidly apply insight from previous experiences to make decisions. 7,8  Given the variation in how decisions are made and real-world demands that nurses and leaders are faced with, a one-size-fits-all approach may not be useful when developing and implementing nurse decision-making interventions.

Information is a fundamental component of the decision-making process and is generated from diverse sources. Digital technologies (e.g., clinical decision support, telehealth, monitoring systems, artificial intelligence) can provide important new sources of information and address limitations to existing information sources, such as organizing EHR data to efficiently identify a patient’s risk for clinical deterioration. However, technologies that fail to adequately address information needs, or are difficult to use, will have limited adoption. Understanding the types of information nurses need in direct care and leadership roles, what information is available, and limitations to existing information sources is needed to evaluate interventions to support decision-making.

Technologic Considerations for Supporting Direct Care Nurses’ Information Needs

Nurses need timely, patient-specific clinical information to provide care. The electronic health record (EHR) is the primary source of patient data, however substantial documentation demands have significantly impacted nurse workload and workflows for finding relevant information. Studies estimate that nurses spend 35 to 41% of their time in the EHR documenting and reviewing patient information. 9,10 While nurses generate large amounts of data in the EHR, documenting an average of 631-875 flowsheet data points and spending an average of 21 minutes documenting notes per shift, there are significant challenges with organizing and synthesizing patient data. 11,12

An integrative review of EHR’s impact on nurses’ cognitive work identified the following limitations to meeting nurse information needs in the EHR: developing an overview of the patient’s history, current status, and plan; synthesizing information using EHR-generated reports to support information needs during a shift and at handoff; and achieving shared understanding of patient goals and care coordination. 13 Similar needs were found by Keenan et al. over a decade ago including the need for a centralized overview of patients accessible to all members of the healthcare team and effective technology to support nurse to nurse change of shift handoffs. 14   Given these challenges, work in two key areas – reducing documentation burden in the EHR and incorporating nurse information needs into EHR redesign are critical to support direct care nurse work.

Another critical area is related to nurses’ expectation to incorporate research into decision-making. This is commonly referred to as evidence-based practice: applying the best available evidence along with patient preferences in making clinical decisions and is a foundation of high-quality nursing care. 15 However, there is a persistent gap of 15 to 17 years between current best evidence and daily practice. 16,17   Studies of information needs and information use for evidence-based practice offer additional perspectives for understanding barriers to routinely using evidence in practice. Findings over the past 15 years indicate that nurses routinely seek out information from colleagues since they share clinical context and are accessible. 18,19  However, information shared by colleagues may be outdated or inaccurate when technology-based tools, such as clinical decision support, can provide nurses with up to date accurate information during a time that integrates well with nurses decision making workflow.

Technologic Considerations for Supporting Nurse Leaders’ Information Needs          

Nurse leaders across roles and settings must integrate patient and organizational data to optimize patient outcomes. Information needs vary by timing of decision. Nurse managers describe short-term information needs about patients related to throughput and staffing needs and long-term information needs focused on meeting organizational priorities, such as quality improvement initiatives and nurse retention. 20, 21 Whereas short-term information was commonly reported to come from the EHR and situational awareness, or understanding of the local environment, long-term information needs require leaders to search for information across sources. A recent review of nursing management information systems found that nursing leaders use information systems to manage human resources, determine nursing workload (nurse to patient ratio) and control costs. 22  These systems are largely based on two sources of data: patient classification measures and hospital resource measurement. The authors did not find a central database or decision support tool to support the work of nurse leaders, suggesting a critical need for new technology to address this gap.

In addition to their own information needs, nurse managers play a critical role in advocating for the information needs of the direct care nurses. For example, in the United States there are an increasing number of mandates and digital technologies related to care quality issues such as central line infection and hospital acquired pressure ulcer prevention. Nurse leaders must appraise digital technologies to determine whether the technology supports the direct care nurses’ information needs, ensure that it is easy to use and does not add to nursing workload as well as providing a return on investment.

A Role for Clinical Decision Support 

One technology-based intervention to assist nurses in complex in decision-making processes is clinical decision support (CDS) systems. CDS systems are computer-based tools to organize person-specific data and knowledge for clinicians and patients to improve the quality and safety of health care. 23 CDS is delivered in a variety of formats, such as through order sets, documentation templates, computerized alerts, dashboards, and visualizations, which may be integrated in electronic health record (EHR) systems or exist as applications or technologies outside the EHR. In general, CDS is composed of three key parts. 24

  • Data management: clinical data and decision rules or logic. Decision rules or logic may be developed using literature and current practice (knowledge-based) or artificial intelligence (non-knowledge-based).  
  • Processing: applies the knowledge or algorithms with patient data
  • User interface: the part of the system that communicates a recommendation and is the point the user interacts with (e.g., computer display, mouse).

Guiding principles for developing effective CDS are known as the CDS Five Rights, and state that CDS should communicate the right information, to the right person, in the right format, through the correct channel at the right time in the workflow. 25 These principles provide a valuable framework for nurse leaders to consider in evaluating potential CDS tools.

CDS tools support information management, which is an increasing need in healthcare given the large volumes of clinical, administrative and research data that is generated. Therefore, tools which filter relevant patient data and apply logic to determine a recommendation are needed. However, fewer CDS tools have been developed for nurses than have been for physicians and other members of the health care team. 26

Current Challenges and Opportunities in Nursing Clinical Support

Recognizing the opportunities for CDS to supporting decision-making must be balanced with the reality that gaps in developing and using CDS exist in nursing. A recent review of CDS tools across multiple disciplines found that only two-thirds of clinicians’ report using available CDS. 27 While understanding of CDS usage specifically among nurses is limited, several nurse, patient, organization, and technology factors have been identified to influence nurses’ use of CDS. 28 Given these challenges, the role of implementation science is emerging as an important approach to inform future CDS design and use. 29

Implementation Science

Implementation science centers on how evidence-based practices are adopted and sustained across specific settings. 30 Whereas evidence-based practice describes what recommendation should be used, implementation science focuses on how to best help people consistently do a particular recommendation in their work environment. 31 Implementation science frameworks provide guidance for understanding key components of implementation, such as describing the implementation process, identifying barriers and facilitators to implementation, or conducting an implementation evaluation. 32 Implementation strategies and context important concepts across most implementation science frameworks. Implementation strategies describe the specific interventions chosen to facilitate change. For example, the Iowa Implementation Model for Sustainability Framework provides an organized approach for selecting an implementation strategy based upon phases of implementation. 33 For example, after nurses have obtained knowledge about a practice change, audit and feedback may be one implementation strategy to promote adoption. Related, is the concept of context, or the unique local factors (e.g., unit culture, work environment, resources) that influence how or why implementation is achieved. 34 In partnership with implementation scientists, nurse leaders can identify unique barriers and facilitators to implementation in the local environment and then match the needs to implementation strategies.

Leveraging User-Centered Design

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Considering the unique needs of users, or user-centered design, is a concept central to implementation science and CDS design (Figure 1). The goal of user-centered design is to make interventions “useable and useful” by focusing on user needs throughout the design and development process. 35 Implementation science and user-centered design use a variety approaches to obtain end-user input, which may include, workflow mapping, participatory design, rapid prototyping, and usability testing. 36, 37 However, methods to engage nurses early in CDS design and implementation are inconsistently applied.

Nurse leaders are in a key position to advocate for greater involvement of nurses, early and throughout the process of developing and implementing CDS. This may include developing processes for nurses to provide feedback about information needs in their settings, workflow considerations, and opportunities to test and refine CDS prototypes. Greater involvement of nursing informatics within organizations and including opportunities for nurses to receive training in implementation science and user-centered design are additional strategies to support integration of these concepts in CDS design and use. 38-40  An organizational culture that supports nurse information needs by considering both the types of CDS that nurses need and how CDS will be used in daily practice is critical, especially as new technologies are developed and CDS becomes more complex.

Nurses and nurse leaders need to make numerous decisions in highly complex work environments. CDS has an expanding potential to augment decision-making across roles by providing nurses with meaningful, person-specific information in a usable format to positively impact care and outcomes. Nurses that will be the eventual user of the CDS need to be involved early and throughout CDS development to ensure that CDS tools are usable, useful, align with workflow as a part of routine work. Implementation scientists, who understand the local context, are needed to design and test strategies for using CDS, both in specific settings and diffusing CDS use across settings. Approaches which consider both how CDS is designed for nurse users and how CDS is used and implemented across health systems is needed to support effective decision-making for driving change in nursing practice and leadership settings.

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  • Siirala E, Salanterä S, Lundgrén-Laine H, Peltonen LM, Engblom J, Junttila K. Identifying nurse managers' essential information needs in daily unit operation in perioperative settings. Nurs Open . May 2020;7(3):793-803. doi:10.1002/nop2.454
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  1. Literature Review on Employee Training and Development

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  2. (PDF) Theory of Training Effectiveness

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  4. (PDF) A LITERATURE REVIEW ON TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY OF WORK

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  1. PDF A Literature Review on Training & Development and Qwl- Impact on

    This paper focuses and analyses the literature findings on importance of training and development and its relation with the employees' quality of work life. Keywords: Human Resource Management, Training, Development and Quality of work life. Introduction

  2. PDF Review of Literature on Training and Development

    This paper focuses and analyses the literature findings on importance of training and development. Introduction: The need for training in part depends upon the company's selection and promotion policies. Companies that attempt to employ only people who already have the needed skills, place less emphasis on training.

  3. The Current State of Research on Training Effectiveness

    The chapter highlights the role of training needs analysis, the types of attendance policies that should be used, the most effective design of training delivery to maximise effectiveness, the relative effectiveness of training methods, the organisation of training content, the importance of learning or training transfer, and the types of outcome...

  4. Theoretical Framework on The Effectiveness of Training & Development

    A research on effectiveness of training and development on worker's productivity in automobile manufacturing companies with reference to Chennai city. Article. Jan 2017. Divyaranjani Ramadoss. D ...

  5. A Literature Review and Reports on Training and Development

    The impact of training effectiveness: A review 2016 • Rajni Saini Training is an essential activity in all professions. It plays a very important role in the effectiveness and efficiency of the human resource. The main aim of this study is to examine the role of training and the factors affecting training effectiveness.

  6. The Effect of Training and Development on Employee Attitude as it

    1. On-the-job training is an effective tool for learning new skills. 2. Developmental training should include effective communications, team building, and coaching. 3. Development training should be afforded to all levels and/or positions. 4. Training and development is important for job growth. 5.

  7. Training and Development

    Kenneth G. Brown LAST REVIEWED: 13 July 2020 LAST MODIFIED: 26 October 2015 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199846740-0013 Introduction Training and development is the study of how structured experiences help employees gain work-related knowledge, skill, and attitudes.

  8. Impact of training on Job Performance: A Literature review

    Impact of training on Job Performance: A Literature review September 2017 Authors: Somasundaram Thirunavukkarasu Kristu Jayanti College Abstract Training is one of the parameter for enhancing...

  9. Full article: Understanding the outcomes of training to improve

    In the development of the ITTEM, we integrate two disparate training literatures; training transfer and training effectiveness. The training transfer literature has focused on identifying the contextual factors that influence training transfer, e.g. the work environment and individual characteristics (Baldwin & Ford, Citation 1988).

  10. Theoretical Framework on The Effectiveness of Training & Development

    THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT - "REVIEW OF LITERATURE" January 2019 International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering 9 (7,july 2018):932-943...

  11. A literature review on training and development and quality of work

    A literature review on training and development and quality of work life Pallavi P. Kulkarni Published 1 April 2013 Business, Education, Psychology The authors suggest that training and development is a process leading to qualitative as well as quantitative advancements in an organization, especially at the managerial level.

  12. Measuring the effectiveness of virtual training: A systematic review

    Measuring the effectiveness of virtual training: A systematic review. In some domains, virtual learning already plays an important role in education and training (e.g., in medicine; see Zhao, Jiang, & Ding, 2020 ). Much attention is now focused on developing the technical aspects of software and solving the problems that hinder its wider use.

  13. Impact of training on employees performance: A case study of Bahir Dar

    1.1. Background of the study. Training is the most basic function of human resources management. It is the systematic application of formal processes to help people to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for them to perform their jobs satisfactorily (Armstrong, Citation 2020).These activities have become widespread human resource management practices in organizations worldwide (Hughes ...

  14. PDF Exploring the Impact of Employee Training and Development on

    This paper presents a systematic literature review that explores the impact of employee training and development on organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The review identifies and analyzes a wide range of studies conducted in various contexts, industries, and organizational settings.

  15. Theoretical Framework on The Effectiveness of Training & Development

    The paper proposes an empirical study on importance & effectiveness of Training & development through a survey on Heads who in turn evaluate the Staffs at work, to identify the training importance and effectiveness in IT companies. The paper intends to review the literature on Training & development. It proposes to explore the importance & effectiveness of Training & development in IT companies.

  16. Business Ethics Training in Human Resource Development: A Literature Review

    Most studies on ethics training effectiveness found positive consequences of training programs regarding ethical behavior. Ample evidence furthermore indicated that training frequently utilized an active learning approach, especially with interaction by or among the participants, adding support to corresponding theories of cognitive development.

  17. (PDF) THE IMPACT OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ON ...

    Training and development is the crucial factors of enlightening the employee performance in most organizations. The purpose of the study is to find out the impact of training and...

  18. The influence of leaders' attitudes and commitment to quality

    The Defence Review 2015, the DoD strategic plan, the HR Charter 2020, and an environmental assessment of the training and education set up within the DoD, including the SA Army Corps training units, highlighted the need for assistance to enhance the QM system and the development of SANDF leaders (South African Department of Defence Citation 2016).

  19. A Literature Review on Training & Development and Quality of Work Life

    The objective of this research is to highlight the prominence of training and development programmes adopted in manufacturing industries encompassing the private and public sectors and the impact that it exerts on the quality of work life of employees in these sectors.

  20. PDF "A Literature Review on Various Models for Evaluating Training Programs"

    ―Training evaluation can be described as a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information for and about a training programme which can be used for planning and guiding decision making as well as assessing the relevance, effectiveness, and the impact of various training components‖ (Raab et al., 1991).

  21. Literature Review

    Effect of Training and Development on Employee Motivation. Motivation is concerned with the factors that influence people to behave in certain ways. Arnold etal (1991), have listed the components as being, direction-what a person is trying to do, effort- how hard a person is trying to and persistence- how long a person keeps on trying.

  22. What are the learning objectives in surgical training

    To map the landscape of contemporary surgical education through a competence framework by conducting a systematic literature review on learning outcomes of surgical education and the instructional methods applied to attain the outcomes. Surgical education has seen a paradigm shift towards competence-based training. However, a gap remains in the literature regarding the specific components of ...

  23. Human Resources Training and Development: a Systematic Literature

    The literature in this study used three databases Taylor & Francis, Sage Journals and Emerald Insight to filter articles published in 2017-2022 with bibliometric studies and PRISMA (Preferred...

  24. Development of low back pain curriculum content standards for entry

    Literature review. The database search returned 577 articles, of which 57 were screened for full-text and 34 were included for data extraction. A previously published paper summarising 15 clinical practice guidelines from Africa, Australia, Brazil, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Malaysia, Mexico, the Netherlands, Philippine, Spain, the USA, and the UK was used to extract clinical ...

  25. Leveraging implementation science with using decision support

    View as pdf A later version of this article appeared in Nurse Leader, Volume 21, Issue 6, December 2023.. Abstract. Technology, such as clinical decision support, can play a role in supporting nurses' decision making, but understanding the complexity and current challenges in nurse decision-making is needed to guide the implementation of technology interventions focused on supporting ...

  26. (PDF) Assessment of training effectiveness: review article

    Assessment of training effectiveness: review article August 2018 DOI: Authors: Hasan Tarik Figures Discover the world's research ... It is a requirement underlined by HPB JAKIM for the...

  27. 10 Essential Managerial Skills and How to Develop Them

    Discover the skills you need to be effective in a manager position and get tips for developing your managerial skills. ... Enjoy opportunities for job-related learning and development. ... Lower training cost with in-demand content and trusted credentials from 325+ top companies and universities. 10 skills every manager should have. Managing ...

  28. A Study on Efficacy of Employee Training: Review of Literature

    This paper summarizes the results of the literature review on the effectiveness of training programmes of employees from diverse perspective. Discover the world's research Available via...