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How to write a speech that your audience remembers

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Whether in a work meeting or at an investor panel, you might give a speech at some point. And no matter how excited you are about the opportunity, the experience can be nerve-wracking . 

But feeling butterflies doesn’t mean you can’t give a great speech. With the proper preparation and a clear outline, apprehensive public speakers and natural wordsmiths alike can write and present a compelling message. Here’s how to write a good speech you’ll be proud to deliver.

What is good speech writing?

Good speech writing is the art of crafting words and ideas into a compelling, coherent, and memorable message that resonates with the audience. Here are some key elements of great speech writing:

  • It begins with clearly understanding the speech's purpose and the audience it seeks to engage. 
  • A well-written speech clearly conveys its central message, ensuring that the audience understands and retains the key points. 
  • It is structured thoughtfully, with a captivating opening, a well-organized body, and a conclusion that reinforces the main message. 
  • Good speech writing embraces the power of engaging content, weaving in stories, examples, and relatable anecdotes to connect with the audience on both intellectual and emotional levels. 

Ultimately, it is the combination of these elements, along with the authenticity and delivery of the speaker , that transforms words on a page into a powerful and impactful spoken narrative.

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What makes a good speech?

A great speech includes several key qualities, but three fundamental elements make a speech truly effective:

Clarity and purpose

Remembering the audience, cohesive structure.

While other important factors make a speech a home run, these three elements are essential for writing an effective speech.

The main elements of a good speech

The main elements of a speech typically include:

  • Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your speech and grabs the audience's attention. It should include a hook or attention-grabbing opening, introduce the topic, and provide an overview of what will be covered.
  • Opening/captivating statement: This is a strong statement that immediately engages the audience and creates curiosity about the speech topics.
  • Thesis statement/central idea: The thesis statement or central idea is a concise statement that summarizes the main point or argument of your speech. It serves as a roadmap for the audience to understand what your speech is about.
  • Body: The body of the speech is where you elaborate on your main points or arguments. Each point is typically supported by evidence, examples, statistics, or anecdotes. The body should be organized logically and coherently, with smooth transitions between the main points.
  • Supporting evidence: This includes facts, data, research findings, expert opinions, or personal stories that support and strengthen your main points. Well-chosen and credible evidence enhances the persuasive power of your speech.
  • Transitions: Transitions are phrases or statements that connect different parts of your speech, guiding the audience from one idea to the next. Effective transitions signal the shifts in topics or ideas and help maintain a smooth flow throughout the speech.
  • Counterarguments and rebuttals (if applicable): If your speech involves addressing opposing viewpoints or counterarguments, you should acknowledge and address them. Presenting counterarguments makes your speech more persuasive and demonstrates critical thinking.
  • Conclusion: The conclusion is the final part of your speech and should bring your message to a satisfying close. Summarize your main points, restate your thesis statement, and leave the audience with a memorable closing thought or call to action.
  • Closing statement: This is the final statement that leaves a lasting impression and reinforces the main message of your speech. It can be a call to action, a thought-provoking question, a powerful quote, or a memorable anecdote.
  • Delivery and presentation: How you deliver your speech is also an essential element to consider. Pay attention to your tone, body language, eye contact , voice modulation, and timing. Practice and rehearse your speech, and try using the 7-38-55 rule to ensure confident and effective delivery.

While the order and emphasis of these elements may vary depending on the type of speech and audience, these elements provide a framework for organizing and delivering a successful speech.

Man-holding-microphone-at-panel-while-talking--how-to-give-a-speech

How to structure a good speech

You know what message you want to transmit, who you’re delivering it to, and even how you want to say it. But you need to know how to start, develop, and close a speech before writing it. 

Think of a speech like an essay. It should have an introduction, conclusion, and body sections in between. This places ideas in a logical order that the audience can better understand and follow them. Learning how to make a speech with an outline gives your storytelling the scaffolding it needs to get its point across.

Here’s a general speech structure to guide your writing process:

  • Explanation 1
  • Explanation 2
  • Explanation 3

How to write a compelling speech opener

Some research shows that engaged audiences pay attention for only 15 to 20 minutes at a time. Other estimates are even lower, citing that people stop listening intently in fewer than 10 minutes . If you make a good first impression at the beginning of your speech, you have a better chance of interesting your audience through the middle when attention spans fade. 

Implementing the INTRO model can help grab and keep your audience’s attention as soon as you start speaking. This acronym stands for interest, need, timing, roadmap, and objectives, and it represents the key points you should hit in an opening. 

Here’s what to include for each of these points: 

  • Interest : Introduce yourself or your topic concisely and speak with confidence . Write a compelling opening statement using relevant data or an anecdote that the audience can relate to.
  • Needs : The audience is listening to you because they have something to learn. If you’re pitching a new app idea to a panel of investors, those potential partners want to discover more about your product and what they can earn from it. Read the room and gently remind them of the purpose of your speech. 
  • Timing : When appropriate, let your audience know how long you’ll speak. This lets listeners set expectations and keep tabs on their own attention span. If a weary audience member knows you’ll talk for 40 minutes, they can better manage their energy as that time goes on. 
  • Routemap : Give a brief overview of the three main points you’ll cover in your speech. If an audience member’s attention starts to drop off and they miss a few sentences, they can more easily get their bearings if they know the general outline of the presentation.
  • Objectives : Tell the audience what you hope to achieve, encouraging them to listen to the end for the payout. 

Writing the middle of a speech

The body of your speech is the most information-dense section. Facts, visual aids, PowerPoints — all this information meets an audience with a waning attention span. Sticking to the speech structure gives your message focus and keeps you from going off track, making everything you say as useful as possible.

Limit the middle of your speech to three points, and support them with no more than three explanations. Following this model organizes your thoughts and prevents you from offering more information than the audience can retain. 

Using this section of the speech to make your presentation interactive can add interest and engage your audience. Try including a video or demonstration to break the monotony. A quick poll or survey also keeps the audience on their toes. 

Wrapping the speech up

To you, restating your points at the end can feel repetitive and dull. You’ve practiced countless times and heard it all before. But repetition aids memory and learning , helping your audience retain what you’ve told them. Use your speech’s conclusion to summarize the main points with a few short sentences.

Try to end on a memorable note, like posing a motivational quote or a thoughtful question the audience can contemplate once they leave. In proposal or pitch-style speeches, consider landing on a call to action (CTA) that invites your audience to take the next step.

People-clapping-after-coworker-gave-a-speech-how-to-give-a-speech

How to write a good speech

If public speaking gives you the jitters, you’re not alone. Roughly 80% of the population feels nervous before giving a speech, and another 10% percent experiences intense anxiety and sometimes even panic. 

The fear of failure can cause procrastination and can cause you to put off your speechwriting process until the last minute. Finding the right words takes time and preparation, and if you’re already feeling nervous, starting from a blank page might seem even harder.

But putting in the effort despite your stress is worth it. Presenting a speech you worked hard on fosters authenticity and connects you to the subject matter, which can help your audience understand your points better. Human connection is all about honesty and vulnerability, and if you want to connect to the people you’re speaking to, they should see that in you.

1. Identify your objectives and target audience

Before diving into the writing process, find healthy coping strategies to help you stop worrying . Then you can define your speech’s purpose, think about your target audience, and start identifying your objectives. Here are some questions to ask yourself and ground your thinking : 

  • What purpose do I want my speech to achieve? 
  • What would it mean to me if I achieved the speech’s purpose?
  • What audience am I writing for? 
  • What do I know about my audience? 
  • What values do I want to transmit? 
  • If the audience remembers one take-home message, what should it be? 
  • What do I want my audience to feel, think, or do after I finish speaking? 
  • What parts of my message could be confusing and require further explanation?

2. Know your audience

Understanding your audience is crucial for tailoring your speech effectively. Consider the demographics of your audience, their interests, and their expectations. For instance, if you're addressing a group of healthcare professionals, you'll want to use medical terminology and data that resonate with them. Conversely, if your audience is a group of young students, you'd adjust your content to be more relatable to their experiences and interests. 

3. Choose a clear message

Your message should be the central idea that you want your audience to take away from your speech. Let's say you're giving a speech on climate change. Your clear message might be something like, "Individual actions can make a significant impact on mitigating climate change." Throughout your speech, all your points and examples should support this central message, reinforcing it for your audience.

4. Structure your speech

Organizing your speech properly keeps your audience engaged and helps them follow your ideas. The introduction should grab your audience's attention and introduce the topic. For example, if you're discussing space exploration, you could start with a fascinating fact about a recent space mission. In the body, you'd present your main points logically, such as the history of space exploration, its scientific significance, and future prospects. Finally, in the conclusion, you'd summarize your key points and reiterate the importance of space exploration in advancing human knowledge.

5. Use engaging content for clarity

Engaging content includes stories, anecdotes, statistics, and examples that illustrate your main points. For instance, if you're giving a speech about the importance of reading, you might share a personal story about how a particular book changed your perspective. You could also include statistics on the benefits of reading, such as improved cognitive abilities and empathy.

6. Maintain clarity and simplicity

It's essential to communicate your ideas clearly. Avoid using overly technical jargon or complex language that might confuse your audience. For example, if you're discussing a medical breakthrough with a non-medical audience, explain complex terms in simple, understandable language.

7. Practice and rehearse

Practice is key to delivering a great speech. Rehearse multiple times to refine your delivery, timing, and tone. Consider using a mirror or recording yourself to observe your body language and gestures. For instance, if you're giving a motivational speech, practice your gestures and expressions to convey enthusiasm and confidence.

8. Consider nonverbal communication

Your body language, tone of voice, and gestures should align with your message . If you're delivering a speech on leadership, maintain strong eye contact to convey authority and connection with your audience. A steady pace and varied tone can also enhance your speech's impact.

9. Engage your audience

Engaging your audience keeps them interested and attentive. Encourage interaction by asking thought-provoking questions or sharing relatable anecdotes. If you're giving a speech on teamwork, ask the audience to recall a time when teamwork led to a successful outcome, fostering engagement and connection.

10. Prepare for Q&A

Anticipate potential questions or objections your audience might have and prepare concise, well-informed responses. If you're delivering a speech on a controversial topic, such as healthcare reform, be ready to address common concerns, like the impact on healthcare costs or access to services, during the Q&A session.

By following these steps and incorporating examples that align with your specific speech topic and purpose, you can craft and deliver a compelling and impactful speech that resonates with your audience.

Woman-at-home-doing-research-in-her-laptop-how-to-give-a-speech

Tools for writing a great speech

There are several helpful tools available for speechwriting, both technological and communication-related. Here are a few examples:

  • Word processing software: Tools like Microsoft Word, Google Docs, or other word processors provide a user-friendly environment for writing and editing speeches. They offer features like spell-checking, grammar correction, formatting options, and easy revision tracking.
  • Presentation software: Software such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Google Slides is useful when creating visual aids to accompany your speech. These tools allow you to create engaging slideshows with text, images, charts, and videos to enhance your presentation.
  • Speechwriting Templates: Online platforms or software offer pre-designed templates specifically for speechwriting. These templates provide guidance on structuring your speech and may include prompts for different sections like introductions, main points, and conclusions.
  • Rhetorical devices and figures of speech: Rhetorical tools such as metaphors, similes, alliteration, and parallelism can add impact and persuasion to your speech. Resources like books, websites, or academic papers detailing various rhetorical devices can help you incorporate them effectively.
  • Speechwriting apps: Mobile apps designed specifically for speechwriting can be helpful in organizing your thoughts, creating outlines, and composing a speech. These apps often provide features like voice recording, note-taking, and virtual prompts to keep you on track.
  • Grammar and style checkers: Online tools or plugins like Grammarly or Hemingway Editor help improve the clarity and readability of your speech by checking for grammar, spelling, and style errors. They provide suggestions for sentence structure, word choice, and overall tone.
  • Thesaurus and dictionary: Online or offline resources such as thesauruses and dictionaries help expand your vocabulary and find alternative words or phrases to express your ideas more effectively. They can also clarify meanings or provide context for unfamiliar terms.
  • Online speechwriting communities: Joining online forums or communities focused on speechwriting can be beneficial for getting feedback, sharing ideas, and learning from experienced speechwriters. It's an opportunity to connect with like-minded individuals and improve your public speaking skills through collaboration.

Remember, while these tools can assist in the speechwriting process, it's essential to use them thoughtfully and adapt them to your specific needs and style. The most important aspect of speechwriting remains the creativity, authenticity, and connection with your audience that you bring to your speech.

Man-holding-microphone-while-speaking-in-public-how-to-give-a-speech

5 tips for writing a speech

Behind every great speech is an excellent idea and a speaker who refined it. But a successful speech is about more than the initial words on the page, and there are a few more things you can do to help it land.

Here are five more tips for writing and practicing your speech:

1. Structure first, write second

If you start the writing process before organizing your thoughts, you may have to re-order, cut, and scrap the sentences you worked hard on. Save yourself some time by using a speech structure, like the one above, to order your talking points first. This can also help you identify unclear points or moments that disrupt your flow.

2. Do your homework

Data strengthens your argument with a scientific edge. Research your topic with an eye for attention-grabbing statistics, or look for findings you can use to support each point. If you’re pitching a product or service, pull information from company metrics that demonstrate past or potential successes. 

Audience members will likely have questions, so learn all talking points inside and out. If you tell investors that your product will provide 12% returns, for example, come prepared with projections that support that statement.

3. Sound like yourself

Memorable speakers have distinct voices. Think of Martin Luther King Jr’s urgent, inspiring timbre or Oprah’s empathetic, personal tone . Establish your voice — one that aligns with your personality and values — and stick with it. If you’re a motivational speaker, keep your tone upbeat to inspire your audience . If you’re the CEO of a startup, try sounding assured but approachable. 

4. Practice

As you practice a speech, you become more confident , gain a better handle on the material, and learn the outline so well that unexpected questions are less likely to trip you up. Practice in front of a colleague or friend for honest feedback about what you could change, and speak in front of the mirror to tweak your nonverbal communication and body language .

5. Remember to breathe

When you’re stressed, you breathe more rapidly . It can be challenging to talk normally when you can’t regulate your breath. Before your presentation, try some mindful breathing exercises so that when the day comes, you already have strategies that will calm you down and remain present . This can also help you control your voice and avoid speaking too quickly.

How to ghostwrite a great speech for someone else

Ghostwriting a speech requires a unique set of skills, as you're essentially writing a piece that will be delivered by someone else. Here are some tips on how to effectively ghostwrite a speech:

  • Understand the speaker's voice and style : Begin by thoroughly understanding the speaker's personality, speaking style, and preferences. This includes their tone, humor, and any personal anecdotes they may want to include.
  • Interview the speaker : Have a detailed conversation with the speaker to gather information about their speech's purpose, target audience, key messages, and any specific points they want to emphasize. Ask for personal stories or examples they may want to include.
  • Research thoroughly : Research the topic to ensure you have a strong foundation of knowledge. This helps you craft a well-informed and credible speech.
  • Create an outline : Develop a clear outline that includes the introduction, main points, supporting evidence, and a conclusion. Share this outline with the speaker for their input and approval.
  • Write in the speaker's voice : While crafting the speech, maintain the speaker's voice and style. Use language and phrasing that feel natural to them. If they have a particular way of expressing ideas, incorporate that into the speech.
  • Craft a captivating opening : Begin the speech with a compelling opening that grabs the audience's attention. This could be a relevant quote, an interesting fact, a personal anecdote, or a thought-provoking question.
  • Organize content logically : Ensure the speech flows logically, with each point building on the previous one. Use transitions to guide the audience from one idea to the next smoothly.
  • Incorporate engaging stories and examples : Include anecdotes, stories, and real-life examples that illustrate key points and make the speech relatable and memorable.
  • Edit and revise : Edit the speech carefully for clarity, grammar, and coherence. Ensure the speech is the right length and aligns with the speaker's time constraints.
  • Seek feedback : Share drafts of the speech with the speaker for their feedback and revisions. They may have specific changes or additions they'd like to make.
  • Practice delivery : If possible, work with the speaker on their delivery. Practice the speech together, allowing the speaker to become familiar with the content and your writing style.
  • Maintain confidentiality : As a ghostwriter, it's essential to respect the confidentiality and anonymity of the work. Do not disclose that you wrote the speech unless you have the speaker's permission to do so.
  • Be flexible : Be open to making changes and revisions as per the speaker's preferences. Your goal is to make them look good and effectively convey their message.
  • Meet deadlines : Stick to agreed-upon deadlines for drafts and revisions. Punctuality and reliability are essential in ghostwriting.
  • Provide support : Support the speaker during their preparation and rehearsal process. This can include helping with cue cards, speech notes, or any other materials they need.

Remember that successful ghostwriting is about capturing the essence of the speaker while delivering a well-structured and engaging speech. Collaboration, communication, and adaptability are key to achieving this.

Give your best speech yet

Learn how to make a speech that’ll hold an audience’s attention by structuring your thoughts and practicing frequently. Put the effort into writing and preparing your content, and aim to improve your breathing, eye contact , and body language as you practice. The more you work on your speech, the more confident you’ll become.

The energy you invest in writing an effective speech will help your audience remember and connect to every concept. Remember: some life-changing philosophies have come from good speeches, so give your words a chance to resonate with others. You might even change their thinking.

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Are you being passed over for a promotion? Here’s what to do

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Alert: Proofread carefully. The reader can read only the form you present on the page to understand what you mean. When you leave typos, misspelled words, and serious sentence errors in your paper, you give the impression that you might expect the reader to "read between the lines." In academic writing, the goal is just the opposite: you want to be as clear, as precise, and as exacting as you are able. Write to minimize the possibility that the reader could misunderstand your thought.

Edit carefully: Proofread thoroughly for errors like those listed here. Reread what you have written. Read your paper aloud to someone else. If you read a sentence and have to read it again to understand it, edit the sentence so it is clear the first time through.

This part of the Website provides a quick check of common errors students make with grammar and punctuation. Although the list is not exhaustive, it does include errors you might find in your own paper. You also can use the list as a reference for comments professors might make in the margins of your graded papers.

Indefinite referents: Whenever possible, avoid using "it," "there," and "this" when no specific referent precedes these pronoun: "It is difficult to say what caused the problem" or "It is necessary to understand this argument" Other examples include "There are many reasons for adopting this policy" or "This is because nonverbal communication is ambiguous." Often these types of sentences can be reworded to avoid the use of "it," "there," or "this" and to create stronger sentences as a result: "The problem arose from unknown causes" or "Often we miscommunicate because nonverbal communication is ambiguous." If you cannot point to a specific noun in the preceding sentence (or sentences) to which one of these words refers, change the structure of your sentence. Rewriting these structures often causes you to make an effective change from passive verbs to active ones.

Shifts in person or point of view: Be consistent with the use of "you," "they," and "I." Each of these pronouns represents a different point of view. Choose one and use it all the way through your paper. Any piece of writing should be grounded in a particular point of view. That point of view can be first person, second person, or third person. The following demonstrates the same idea from each of these three points of view:

(First person: I, me, we, us) I have trouble applying Tannen's work to generalized audiences because I do not think the research represents all of us. Tannen's limited sample of participants should make us wary of making generalizations from those research findings.

(Second person: you) You will have trouble applying Tannen's work to generalized audiences because you cannot be sure the research findings represent you. Tannen's limited sample of participants should make you wary of making generalizations from those research findings.

(Third person: her, him, he, she, they, them) A person would have trouble applying Tannen's work to generalized audiences because the research findings do not represent all individuals. Tannen's limited sample of participants should make a reader wary of making generalizations from those research findings.

Second person (you) is rarely used in academic writing. Many instructors prefer third person (her, him, he, she, they, them) because they believe third person is the most objective of the three points of view. On the other hand, some academicians prefer to have writers claim responsibility for their own ideas and interpretations; those academicians will encourage writers to use first person (I, me, we, us). If the instructor's preference is not evident, students should inquire.

Students err when they shift from one point of view to another within the same paper. Shifting the point of view can be confusing to the reader. The incorrect shift in person demonstrated here is common in student papers:

(Incorrect shift from first person to second person) I have trouble applying Tannen's work to generalized audiences because you cannot presume the research represents all people. Tannen's limited sample of participants should make you wary of making generalizations from those research findings.

In this example the author moves from first person ("I have trouble") to second person ("you cannot presume"). Shifts in person should be eliminated. A good way to edit for shift in person is to read every other page of the paper. Identify on each page the point of view being used.

Such as: Examples should be introduced by "such as" rather than by "like": "Her light reading included works such as The Foundations of the General Theory of Relativity and the Principia Mathematica."

Lack of agreement: Lack of agreement means two parts of a sentence do not agree in kind. Lack of agreement in student papers occurs in a variety of ways, but two are demonstrated here:

(Noun and verb) A plural noun may not agree in number with the singular verb used (or vice versa).

Incorrect example: "The series of explanations of concepts help make the meaning clear." "Series" is singular and takes "helps," not "help."

Correct example: "The series of explanations of concepts helps make the meaning clear."

(Nouns and pronouns) A pronoun may not agree with its antecedent noun.

Incorrect example: "An argument will not be successful unless their claims have been made clear." "Argument" (the singular, antecedent noun) requires "its" (singular pronoun) rather than "their" (plural pronoun).

Correct example: "An argument will not be successful unless its claims have been made clear." Remember that "everyone" and "audience" are singular nouns that do not agree with "their." Conversely, "media" and "data" are plural nouns that do not agree with "it."

One troublesome agreement problem occurs because English has no convenient way to use a singular pronoun without indicating sex. "They" can be used in English to indicate a group of people whose sex is not named. When the writer wants to indicate an individual without attributing a sex to that person, English has no similar, singular pronoun to use. What pronoun should a writer use in this sentence? "A scholar should be aware that _?_ is consuming information created by other scholars." To fill in that question mark, writers use a variety of solutions: "he/she," "s/he," "she or he," or "she (he)." Sometimes writers use "they" even though the antecedent noun is singular: "Every theorist strives to do their best work." Students should inquire about their instructors' preferences on this issue just as graduate students and professors must inquire about journal editors' policies and standards.

Critical differences: Certain words are similar in meaning to each other but are used in slightly different ways:

"Less" and "Fewer:" "Less" and "fewer" are different. The rule is simple: if you can count it, use "fewer"; if not, use "less." Correct usage would be "fewer students" (not "less students") and "less knowledge." The parallel series moves from many to few to fewer and from much to little to less.

"Like" and "As:" Both "like" and "as" are used to indicate comparisons, but the former precedes a noun phrase while the latter is used before a verbal expression: "He drinks like a fish" and "There's no business like show business," but "The symphony ended as it had begun--in E flat major."

No such word: "Alot" is not a word (although "allot" is), and "a lot" is generally inappropriate use of informal speech in writing. "Irregardless" and "eachother," also are not words.

"Quote" and "Quotation:" "Quote" is not a noun. "Quote" is a verb. "Quotation" is a noun. "Quote" is not a short form for quotation as, for example, "memo" is for "memorandum." Writing "this quote proves my point" is inaccurate usage."

Splitting phrases. Avoid needlessly splitting infinitives and verb phrases. "He tried to walk quietly into the room" is preferred over "He tried to quietly walk into the room." "He believed that he probably would go" is preferred over "He believed that he would probably go."

"Which" and "That:" "Which" and "that" should not be used interchangeably.

"Which" is used when what follows is not crucial to the meaning of the sentence. Example: "Those gray squirrels, which you have been feeding, gnawed a hole in our roof." Example: "on the ice barrier, Byrd and his men established winter quarters, which they named Little America."

"That" is used when what follows is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Example: "The studies that have produced such results are numerous." Example: "This article is the one that changed the course of the discussion."

Hint: "That" is correct more often than "which." Also, when "which" is used, commas usually appear around the clause or phrase introduced by "which."

Sentences: Sentence errors include use of incomplete sentences (sometimes marked as "sentence fragment" or "frag"), run-on sentences, and comma splices.

Incomplete sentences. A complete sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. Students often write incomplete sentences when they begin the sentence with an adverbial, dependent clause. Example: "After Coates completed the surveys of the undergraduate participants and distributed a new set of surveys to graduate students." This example of an in complete sentence suggests the writer did not proofread slowly and carefully. Muttering the sentences aloud to yourself as you proofread is a good way to catch incomplete sentences like this one.

Run-on sentences. A run-on sentence is actually two or more sentences run together without punctuation. Example: "Dr. King's use of metaphor creates striking images that appeal to the imaginations of listeners in his audience people came from their hometowns all over the United States in hopes they might be inspired at the rally in Washington, D.C." The writer should use punctuation after "audience" and before "people." The writer could choose either a semi-colon between these two independent clauses or a period (after "audience") and a capital letter (on "people").

Comma splices. Commas splices are like run-on sentences except that the writer places a comma between the two clauses: "Uncertainty reduction theory includes too many conditions, it is not a usable theory." Commas cannot connect two independent clauses unless a conjunction (such as "and" or "but") also is used. Usually, a semi-colon can repair a sentence with a comma splice. The example could be repaired by using a conjunction ("Uncertainty reduction theory includes too many conditions, and it is not a usable theory"), by using a semi-colon ("Uncertainty reduction theory includes too many conditions; it is not a usable theory"), by making the sentence into a single sentence ("Uncertainly reduction theory is not a usable theory because it has too many conditions"), or by making it into two separate sentences ("Uncertainty reduction theory has too many conditions. It is not a usable theory"). Using the semi-colon in this case might be the strongest construction because you want the writer to associate the two thoughts expressed in each of these independent clauses.

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How to Achieve Grammatical Correctness in Technical Writing

Katie Almeida Spencer

Table of Contents

Achieving grammatical correctness in technical writing, general grammar suggestions.

Accuracy is the most important trait of all business writing, but it is absolutely critical to technical writing . Any weakness, including terrible grammar or prose, can be as serious as communicating inaccurate information. 

In fact, poor grammar can lead to misunderstandings and misconstrued meanings. Let’s take a look at how to ensure that you have a grammatically sound technical document and become a stronger technical writer. 

Technical communication has three specific considerations with regards to grammatical correctness, no matter the document type. 

Passive voice

The passive voice is often frowned upon in business writing because it is a denser, more complex, and less direct verb structure. That said, it can be appropriate and necessary when conveying scientific or technical information. It can be a tricky verb structure to get right, especially for non-native speakers, so let’s look at a few examples. 

Ensure that the lid has been replaced correctly before blending the ingredients .

The underlined section is an example of the appropriate use of the passive voice in instructions. It sounds better than saying “ Ensure that you have replaced the lid correctly ” or “ Ensure someone has replaced the lid correctly ”, both of which show the active voice in the underlined section.

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Write any technical document and get instructor feedback and coaching on your writing.

“ ...the lid has been replaced correctly before blending the ingredients” is in the passive voice because the subject of the clause, the lid, is RECEIVING the action. In an active sentence or clause, the subject is DOING the action. More info on using the passive voice in business writing here.  

The general rule for the passive voice is that you have to add an extra BE in the correct tense and change the original verb to the past participle.

In the present tense , here’s what that looks like:

Active - I eat cheese every day.  

Passive - Cheese is eaten by me every day.

In the past tense , it looks like this:

Active - I submitted the report to Tom.

Passive - The report was submitted to Tom by me. 

In the present perfect , it gets even more complicated:

Active - We have seen this type of conflict unfold before. 

Passive - This type of conflict has been seen unfold before by us. 

You can see the pattern of adding an extra be in the correct tense (you can see a list of all verb tenses here ). In all of the above examples, the active voice is clearly better for business and technical writing. But, let’s look at some examples in which the passive voice is clearly better.

In the present tense :

Active - Next, someone slices the oranges in half.

Passive - Next, the oranges are sliced in half. 

Passive voice is better in this example of technical writing because it doesn’t matter who slices the oranges in this assumed list of actions. 

In the past tense :

Active - Someone submitted the report on time.

Passive - The report was submitted on time. 

Again, passive voice is better because it doesn’t matter or is unclear who submitted it, and it is more important that it was on time. 

In the present perfect , we can see the original example:

Active -  Ensure that someone has replaced the lid correctly before blending the ingredients.

Passive - Ensure that t he lid has been replaced correctly before blending the ingredients.

Remember, we are only looking at the underlined clause. 

Ensuring that you know how and when to use the passive voice correctly will help you achieve grammatical correctness in your technical writing. 

Commands and directions

The next quirk of technical writing is that it often contains a lot of commands and directions. When writing commands, the subject is implied ( you ) and not stated in the sentence. For example,

(You) Press the power button on the tower.

(You) Turn on the monitor by pressing the button on the bottom left of the screen. 

(You) Enter your credentials. 

Linguistically, we call these commands. In technical writing, they are often thought of as instructions, directions, or procedures. Regardless of what they are called, it’s important to recognize that the subject of the sentence ( you ) is implied, especially if you are a non-native speaker of English working in an English-speaking technical field. This simple understanding will help you understand how to ensure that you have grammatical correctness in your technical writing in the English language. 

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Bullets and lists

Technical writing often relies heavily on bulleted or numbered lists. Making sure that your lists are punctuated correctly will help you achieve grammatical accuracy and avoid a common grammar error. 

Another key point is that all lists should have a lead-in statement that contextualizes every point on the list. This lead-in statement should end in a colon and again, it must contextualize EVERY point on the list. For example,

Every employee must:

•   Wash their hands regularly. •  Wear a well-fitting face mask. •  Take their temperature daily. 

In the example above, every bullet completes the lead-in sentence in a grammatically correct way. This is a key part of achieving grammatical correctness in technical writing in which lists and bullets are used consistently. 

You can find more suggestions on how to create a better bulleted list here .

As with all business writing and academic writing, you should NOT rely on your own eyes to find and fix grammatical mistakes. You should also follow the proper rules of grammar with the right tools:

  • Use a program like Microsoft Editor or Grammarly.com to achieve correct grammar and correct spelling.
  • Use Hemingwayapp.com to check for use of the passive voice and see if you can reduce it. 
  • Visit the  Purdue Online Writing Lab  to understand grammatical terms better.
  • Ensure that your document aligns with any internal or industry standards.
  • Have someone else review your document if possible, or leave time between the final drafting and editing to find incorrect grammar. 

As with any business writing, accuracy in technical writing is critical, and achieving correct grammar is part of that accuracy. Our technical writing course helps you become a stronger technical writer, use compelling language, and achieve correct writing without grammatical errors. 

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Write your own technical document and get expert instructor feedback.

Our Technical Foundations Course is available for individuals and groups online, virtually, and onsite.

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Speechwriting 101: Writing an Effective Speech

Whether you are a communications pro or a human resources executive, the time will come when you will need to write a speech for yourself or someone else.  when that time comes, your career may depend on your success..

J. Lyman MacInnis, a corporate coach,  Toronto Star  columnist, accounting executive and author of  “ The Elements of Great Public Speaking ,”  has seen careers stalled – even damaged – by a failure to communicate messages effectively before groups of people. On the flip side, solid speechwriting skills can help launch and sustain a successful career.  What you need are forethought and methodical preparation.

Know Your Audience

Learn as much as possible about the audience and the event.  This will help you target the insights, experience or knowledge you have that this group wants or needs:

  • Why has the audience been brought together?
  • What do the members of the audience have in common?
  • How big an audience will it be?
  • What do they know, and what do they need to know?
  • Do they expect discussion about a specific subject and, if so, what?
  • What is the audience’s attitude and knowledge about the subject of your talk?
  • What is their attitude toward you as the speaker?
  • Why are they interested in your topic?

Choose Your Core Message

If the core message is on target, you can do other things wrong. But if the message is wrong, it doesn’t matter what you put around it.  To write the most effective speech, you should have significant knowledge about your topic, sincerely care about it and be eager to talk about it.  Focus on a message that is relevant to the target audience, and remember: an audience wants opinion. If you offer too little substance, your audience will label you a lightweight.  If you offer too many ideas, you make it difficult for them to know what’s important to you.

Research and Organize

Research until you drop.  This is where you pick up the information, connect the ideas and arrive at the insights that make your talk fresh.  You’ll have an easier time if you gather far more information than you need.  Arrange your research and notes into general categories and leave space between them. Then go back and rearrange. Fit related pieces together like a puzzle.

Develop Structure to Deliver Your Message

First, consider whether your goal is to inform, persuade, motivate or entertain.  Then outline your speech and fill in the details:

  • Introduction – The early minutes of a talk are important to establish your credibility and likeability.  Personal anecdotes often work well to get things started.  This is also where you’ll outline your main points.
  • Body – Get to the issues you’re there to address, limiting them to five points at most.  Then bolster those few points with illustrations, evidence and anecdotes.  Be passionate: your conviction can be as persuasive as the appeal of your ideas.
  • Conclusion – Wrap up with feeling as well as fact. End with something upbeat that will inspire your listeners.

You want to leave the audience exhilarated, not drained. In our fast-paced age, 20-25 minutes is about as long as anyone will listen attentively to a speech. As you write and edit your speech, the general rule is to allow about 90 seconds for every double-spaced page of copy.

Spice it Up

Once you have the basic structure of your speech, it’s time to add variety and interest.  Giving an audience exactly what it expects is like passing out sleeping pills. Remember that a speech is more like conversation than formal writing.  Its phrasing is loose – but without the extremes of slang, the incomplete thoughts, the interruptions that flavor everyday speech.

  • Give it rhythm. A good speech has pacing.
  • Vary the sentence structure. Use short sentences. Use occasional long ones to keep the audience alert. Fragments are fine if used sparingly and for emphasis.
  • Use the active voice and avoid passive sentences. Active forms of speech make your sentences more powerful.
  • Repeat key words and points. Besides helping your audience remember something, repetition builds greater awareness of central points or the main theme.
  • Ask rhetorical questions in a way that attracts your listeners’ attention.
  • Personal experiences and anecdotes help bolster your points and help you connect with the audience.
  • Use quotes. Good quotes work on several levels, forcing the audience to think. Make sure quotes are clearly attributed and said by someone your audience will probably recognize.

Be sure to use all of these devices sparingly in your speeches. If overused, the speech becomes exaggerated. Used with care, they will work well to move the speech along and help you deliver your message in an interesting, compelling way.

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  • Creating Correctness in Writing
  • English Department

June 8, 2021

In this series on the five elements of writing essays at Southern Adventist University, we’ve now reached the last element, correctness.

When the average person thinks about English, the first thing he might think of is "correctness" as it concerns basic matters such as grammar and punctuation. However, while correctness involves those things, we must not think of correctness as a simple skill or less important than other aspects of writing.

Because errors of correctness create such a viscerally negative reaction in some readers and listeners, errors of correctness get a lot of attention from editors and speakers. No one wants to be seen as being “illiterate."

Speakers of nonstandard English suffer from this conception of correct communication as being all about correctness. If we compare two pieces of communication, one that communicates clearly and vividly with many correctness errors, and one that is technically correct but otherwise unreadable, we will quickly discover that readers prefer the vivid example every time.

But we live in a world of standard and nonstandard expression, and depending on the context, we have to conform to expectations about correctness if we want to be effective communicators.

Grammar concerns far more than basic correctness. It is content! A grammar error stigmatizes social class or lack of education, like it or not. So you will want to check the grammar of your essays against the standard.

Other aspects of correctness are important as well. Always use the exact word needed. Sometimes a word appears to be the right one when in reality it only sounds similar to the right word. If you are unsure, consult a dictionary to be sure all your word choices are correct.

Unless you are being experimental or purposeful, avoid comma splices (two clauses joined only by a comma), run-ons (two clauses forced together with no punctuation or connecting word, and sentence fragments (unintentionally incomplete thoughts). Ordinarily, use of these forms is considered incorrect.

Think of punctuation as a clarification of grammar and meaning. Punctuation choices should not be determined by your feelings. This method will lead to many punctuation errors.

To illustrate: note these two sentences. “Because he was lying in jail, his health began to fail, and he was threatened with consumption.” “In jail his health began to fail and was threatened with consumption.” In the second sentence, the author reduces the complex-compound sentence to a relatively simple sentence with one subject and two verbs. All punctuation above is used correctly because of the grammatical structure of each sentence.

The most technical aspect of writing is mechanics—spelling, apostrophes, quotation marks, capital letters, abbreviations, numbers, italics, or hyphens. No good counsel here. Grab a handbook or dictionary and get it right! There’s no other way.

The format of an essay is simply an arbitrary requirement of the professor. Compare your essay to the sample format given you. Make the necessary changes.

A typo is an unintentional mistake that any writer can make when typing. “I go swimming in the pole.” Missing elements are also common. Writers can easily leave words out of essays that they will swear are there! “Don’t forget get your gift.” I’ve read documents five times for mistakes, found none, and still discover them later! Frustrating, but a fact of life.

Finally, consider carefully any attempts to be non-sexist. Languages are a collection of arbitrary signs. Meaning comes from context, not from dictionary definitions. Saying that a language is "sexist" is philosophical/social/political in nature. 

The standard grammar of agreement in English has changed in the natural course of language development. We can properly say, the “writer they.” However, always avoid clumsy and unclear uses of the word “they.” Sometimes the word "they" can confuse rather than enlighten. Also unavoid nonwords such as “he/she” or “s/he."

Remember, overall, that clear communication is always the goal, and achieving correctness will boost clarity.

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Definition and Examples of Correctness in Language

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

  • An Introduction to Punctuation
  • Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
  • M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
  • B.A., English, State University of New York

In prescriptive grammar , correctness is the notion that certain words, word forms, and syntactic structures meet the standards and conventions (that is, the "rules") prescribed by traditional grammarians . Contrast correctness with grammatical error .

According to David Rosenwasser and Jill Stephen, "Achieving grammatical correctness is a matter of both knowledge--how to recognize and avoid errors--and timing: when to narrow your focus to proofreading " ( Writing Analytically , 2012).

Examples and Observations

  • "It is in vain to set up a language police to stem living developments. (I have always suspected that correctness is the last refuge of those who have nothing to say.)" (Friederich Waismann, "Analytic-Synthetic V." Analysis , 1952)
  • "Concern with correctness , whether mechanical, logical, or rhetorical, is in no way illegitimate or suspect. Virtually all educators evaluate student writing for correctness of spelling, grammar, or logic. What generates the distinctive pedagogies of clear and correct writing is not a concern with correctness that no one else shares, but the rather less widespread notion that rules are somehow context-neutral, that they can be taught by themselves and then applied elsewhere." (Dennis McGrath and Martin B. Spear, The Academic Crisis of the Community College . SUNY Press, 1991)
  • School Grammar and Correctness "In nearly every instance, school grammar is traditional grammar . It is concerned primarily with correctness and with the categorical names for the words that make up sentences. Thus, students study grammatical terms and certain 'rules' that are supposed to be associated with correctness. Grammar instruction is justified on the assumption that students who speak or write expressions such as He don't do nothin' will modify their language to produce He doesn't do anything if only they learn a bit more grammar. . . . "Although most teachers in our public schools continue to prescribe language, linguists dropped prescription long ago, replacing it with the concept of appropriateness conditions . This expression signifies that language use is situation specific and that there is no absolute standard of correctness that applies to all situations. People modify their language on the basis of circumstances and dominant conventions . . .." (James D. Williams, The Teacher's Grammar Book . Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999)

Three Kinds of Rules

"Most of our attitudes about correctness have been encouraged by generations of grammarians who, in their zeal to codify 'good' English, have confused three kinds of 'rules': A few date from the twentieth century:But since grammarians have been accusing the best writers of violating such rules for the last 250 years, we have to conclude that for 250 years the best writers have been ignoring both the rules and the grammarians. Which is lucky for grammarians, because if writers did obey all their rules, grammarians would have to keep inventing new ones, or find another line of work." (Joseph M. Williams, Style: The Basics of Clarity and Grace . Longman, 2003)

  • Some rules define what makes English English-- articles precede nouns : the book , not book the . These are the real rules we violate only when we are tired or rushed. . . .
  • A few rules distinguish Standard English from nonstandard : He doesn't have any money versus He don't have no money . The only writers who consciously follow these rules are those striving to join the educated class. Schooled writers observe these rules as naturally as they observe the real rules and think about them only when they notice others violating them.
  • Finally, some grammarians have invented rules they think we all should observe. Most date from the last half of the eighteenth century:
  • Don't split infinitives , as in to quietly leave .
  • Don't use than after different , as in This is different than that . Use from .
  • Don't use hopefully for I hope , as in Hopefully , it won't rain .
  • Don't use which for that , as in a car which I sold.

Freshman Composition and Correctness

" Composition courses provided a means to teach larger numbers of students at once, assessing their success by measuring their adherence to prescribed standards. . . .

"[M]any schools [in the late 19th century] began instituting Freshman Composition classes that focused more on correctness than invention . For example, Harvard's course English A, initiated in the 1870s, focused less on traditional aspects of rhetoric and more on correctness and formulaic responses. The concept of 'discipline' had changed from moral and religious discipline, codes of conduct and virtue, to mental discipline, means of working with repetitive drills and exercises." (Suzanne Bordelon, Elizabethada A. Wright, and S. Michael Halloran, "From Rhetoric to Rhetorics: An Interim Report on the History of American Writing Instruction to 1900." A Short History of Writing Instruction: From Ancient Greece to Contemporary America , 3rd ed., edited by James J. Murphy. Routledge, 2012)  

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Addressing Grammar and Correctness

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Impeccable syntax, punctuation, spelling, and grammar are certainly important elements of effective writing.  But substantial research has shown that asking students to spend time on memorizing definitions and filling out worksheets on sentence fragments does not translate into improvements in student writing.  Nonetheless, PWR is committed to offering students 30 minutes of classroom instruction each week devoted to issues of style and grammar. 

Grammar Suggestions 

To help students with grammar, consult the Hume Center's  Grammar Resources for Writers  page. Then, consider the suggestions below, provided by veteran PWR instructors:

  • Clearly define what you regard as the most serious “problems” in grammar, syntax, and punctuation, and make very clear what your expectations are for accurate and appropriate use of conventions for drafts and final submissions.
  • After reading the first set of assignments, make a list of the top three or four common problems and ask students to discuss them briefly in small groups.
  • Remember that the variety of linguistic and cultural backgrounds Stanford students bring with them affect how students define “good” writing.  Before you draw conclusions about any student’s control of “standard” academic English, learn what you can about that student’s own understanding of correctness.
  • Make notes on each student’s common grammatical errors as you read the first set of assignments, and return to these notes during your first conferences.
  • Ask students to keep an error inventory of their own.  Refer to these inventories in conferences, asking students to explain the particular pattern and identify it in their own writing.
  • Schedule an editing workshop before mid-term, during which students bring their inventories to class and use them as the basis for editing each other’s writing.
  • When responding to drafts and/or final versions, do not correct the errors yourself.  Rather, use a system for indicating where an error exists (a check in the margin, for instance), along with a tip about where the student can look for help with that error (a section of your handbook, for example).
  • Above all, be careful and diplomatic when addressing grammar issues. This is a sensitive area for many students, and over-emphasis on small-scale issues can draw students’ attention away from more global concerns in their writing.

See also additional tips from Stanford Instructors: IWIK - The Devil's in the Details: Giving Feedback on Grammar and Correctness (Canvas Login Required)

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Humanities LibreTexts

19.1: “Correctness” in Writing

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  • Amy Guptill
  • The College at Brockport, SUNY

Many students assume—or fear—that college writing is judged primarily on its grammatical correctness. Ideas, evidence, and arguments matter more than the mechanics of grammar and punctuation; however, many of the rules of formal writing exist to promote clarity and precision which writers much achieve in order to effectively convey ideas, evidence, and arguments. In addition, texts that observe the rules of formal written English tend to be more persuasive by making the author appear well informed and careful. Writing replete with errors does not make a great impression , and most educators want to help students present themselves well. Correctness, then, isn’t the most important thing, but it does matter.

Another common assumption among students is that one is either good at grammar or not good at grammar, and that such is one’s immutable fate. Not true. Once you master a particular rule or practice, it becomes second nature, and then you can focus your attention on mastering another. I finally nailed down commas and semicolons in college and some finer points of grammar in graduate school. I do a lot of formal writing in the course of my career, and I still look things up in a writing handbook from time to time. You can master the practices of formal written English, and college is a great time to use the feedback from your professors to identify your common errors and learn to correct them.

In thinking about correctness, it’s important to recognize that some rules are more important than others. Joseph Williams helpfully distinguishes three kinds of rules. 1 First, there are rules that are basic to English, such as “the car” not “car the.” For example,

INCORRECT: I thought whether true claims not.
CORRECT: I hadn’t thought about whether the claims were true.

If you’ve gotten most of your formal education in English, you probably observe these rules routinely. If your writing has mismatches of number (singular/plural) or tense, it might be due to haste or carelessness rather than unawareness. Similarly, capitalizing the first word of a sentence and ending with appropriate punctuation are basic rules that most people comply with automatically when writing for a professor or in other formal situations.

Williams’ second category is comprised of rules that distinguish standard written English from the informal variants that people use in their day-to-day lives. Most students with middle-class and non-immigrant backgrounds use informal vernaculars that closely parallel standard written English. Students with working-class or more modest backgrounds or who are members of transnational and multi-lingual communities may use informal variants of English in their everyday lives that are quite different from standard written English. It’s an unfortunate reality of social inequality that such students have to expend more effort than their middle-class English-speaking counterparts to master the standard conventions. It’s not really fair, but at least the mechanics and rules of formal writing are documented and unambiguous. Learning to communicate effectively in different social contexts is part of becoming an educated person.

Some examples:

INFORMAL:We ain’t got no more of them cookies.
FORMAL: We don’t have any more of those cookies.
INFORMAL: My coat, my phone, and my keys was all lock in the car.
FORMAL: My coat, my phone, and my keys were all locked in the car.
INFORMAL: u shd go 2 café b4 wrk bc coffee
FORMAL: You should go the café before work to get some coffee.

The informal versions are clearly English, and they’re widely understandable to others. The first and second examples contain choices of tense, number, and punctuation that are inappropriate in standard written English even though they don’t actually impede communication . Most students already understand that these first two categories of rules (rules fundamental to English and the rules of standard written English) are obligatory for formal writing.

There is a third category of rules that Williams notes and enthusiastically criticizes; he calls them “invented rules” because they usually arise from busybody grammarians rather than enduring patterns of customary language use. Some invented rules Williams calls “options”: those that your reader will notice when you observe them and not care if you don’t. Here’s an example of the fabled don’t-end-a-sentence-with-a-preposition rule :

OBSERVING THE RULE: With which concept can we analyze this problem?
IGNORING THE RULE: Which concept can we analyze this problem with?

Some grammarians would claim that only the first version is correct. However, you probably have the (accurate) impression that professional writers are much more likely to choose the second version. This rule does not reflect real-life customary practice, even in standard written English. That’s why Williams calls it an “invented rule.” Most of your professors are fine with the second version above, the one that ends a sentence with a preposition.

Similarly, there’s this murky idea out there that one should not split infinitives ; that is, one should not have any words between “to” and the verb that follows. Here’s an example:

OBSERVED: to go boldly where no one has gone before
IGNORED: to boldly go where no one has gone before

Again, while some grammarians have argued that conscientious writers should avoid splitting infinitives, most professional writers have ignored that claim. The second version, which puts the adverb (“boldly”) within the infinitive (that is, between “to” and “go”) makes for a perfectly clear and pleasing phrase. The invented rule about splitting infinitives is an attempt to solve a problem that doesn’t exist. If you want to give your writing more of a scholarly air, you could observe some or all of these optional rules. But, unless your professor has a particular penchant for one of these invented rules, you can safely ignore them.

Williams calls the second sub-category of invented rules “folklore.” They’re invented rules (like “options”) in that grammarians think writers should observe them, but, in reality, no one does. Williams gleefully lists instances in which the very grammarians who propose these rules go on to unselfconsciously violate them. 2 You may have heard of these rules, but they’re widely considered absurd.

For example, some grammarians are dismayed that people use “that” and “which” interchangeably, and they argue that writers should use “that” to indicate restrictive elements and “which” to indicate non-restrictive elements. A restrictive element is one that makes a necessary specification about something; a non-restrictive element is one that simple adds extra information. Consider these two examples:

The party that Alex went to was shut down by the police.
The party which Alex went to was shut down by the police.

For almost all readers, versions 1 and 2 are saying the exact same thing. For the persnickety grammarian, version 1 is specifying the party that Alex went to, and not the party that, say, Jordan went to, while version 2 is simply inserting extra information about Alex’s attendance at the party. According to these grammarians, “that Alex went to” adds critically needed information (restrictive) while “which Alex went to” adds bonus information (non-restrictive).

As Williams and some others explain: it’s bullshit . Professional writers use commas and carefully chosen words to do the job of distinguishing restrictive and non-restrictive elements, and they choose whichever relative pronoun (“that” or “which”) sounds better in context. You could observe the distinction between that and which if you like, but no one would notice. More importantly, observing this invented rule wouldn’t necessarily make your writing any clearer, more concise, or more graceful.

There is one rule that Williams calls “folklore” that you probably have to observe in college papers nonetheless: that is, the rule that you can’t start sentences with But, And, So, For, or Yet (or other coordinating conjunctions) . I’m sure you could browse through assigned readings and articles published in major newspapers and magazines that violate this so-called rule. Here are two examples that took me about 10 minutes to find:

From the front page of the New York Times January 7, 2014 : 3 “But since the financial crisis, JPMorgan has become so large and profitable that it has been able to weather the government’s legal blitz, which has touched many parts of the bank’s sprawling operations.” And a little further down we see, “Yet JPMorgan’s shares are up 28 percent over the last 12 months.”
From a news article in Science, December 21, 2007 : 4 “Altered winds blew in more warm air from the subtropics only in models in which mid-latitude oceans warmed as observed; apparently, the warmer oceans altered the circulation. And that ocean warming is widely viewed as being driven by the strengthening greenhouse.”

If you’re writing a paper for my class, feel free to begin sentences with conjunctions. As the above examples show, it’s a concise way to support clarity and effective flow. However, I suspect most instructors still hold to the old rule. Thus, you shouldn’t start sentences with “And,” “But” or other coordinating conjunctions unless you’ve been specifically invited to.

There are countless other rules that I don’t discuss here. The point of these examples is to show that you don’t have to observe every little rule you’ve ever heard of. There are some elements of mechanics that you have to master; I summarize some common ones below. These practices will gradually become second nature. It’s sometimes hard to know at the outset which rules are standard, which are options, and which are folklore. With the help of a good handbook and your instructors, you’ll learn them over time. The larger point I want to make here is that that observing rules isn’t about traversing a minefield of potential errors; it’s just about learning and adopting the practices appropriate to your audience, which is one of the first rules of writing well.

Table of Contents

Collaboration, information literacy, writing process, coherence – how to achieve coherence in writing.

  • © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

Coherence refers to a style of writing where ideas, themes, and language connect logically, consistently, and clearly to guide the reader's understanding. By mastering coherence , alongside flow , inclusiveness , simplicity,  and unity , you'll be well-equipped to craft professional or academic pieces that engage and inform effectively. Acquire the skills to instill coherence in your work and discern it in the writings of others.

in writing an effective speech how do you achieve grammatical correctness

What is Coherence?

Coherence in writing refers to the logical connections and consistency that hold a text together, making it understandable and meaningful to the reader. Writers create coherence in three ways:

  • logical consistency
  • conceptual consistency
  • linguistic consistency.

What is Logical Consistency?

  • For instance, if they argue, “If it rains, the ground gets wet,” and later state, “It’s raining but the ground isn’t wet,” without additional explanation, this represents a logical inconsistency.

What is Conceptual Consistency?

  • For example, if you are writing an essay arguing that regular exercise has multiple benefits for mental health, each paragraph should introduce and discuss a different benefit of exercise, all contributing to your main argument. Including a paragraph discussing the nutritional value of various foods, while interesting, would break the conceptual consistency, as it doesn’t directly relate to the benefits of exercise for mental health.

What is Linguistic Consistency?

  • For example, if a writer jumps erratically between different tenses or switches point of view without clear demarcation, the reader might find it hard to follow the narrative, leading to a lack of linguistic coherence.

Related Concepts: Flow ; Given to New Contract ; Grammar ; Organization ; Organizational Structures ; Organizational Patterns ; Sentence Errors

Why Does Coherence Matter?

Coherence is crucial in writing as it ensures that the text is understandable and that the ideas flow logically from one to the next. When writing is coherent, readers can easily follow the progression of ideas, making the content more engaging and easier to comprehend. Coherence connects the dots for the reader, linking concepts, arguments, and details in a clear, logical manner.

Without coherence, even the most interesting or groundbreaking ideas can become muddled and lose their impact. A coherent piece of writing keeps the reader’s attention, demonstrates the writer’s control over their subject matter, and can effectively persuade, inform, or entertain. Thus, coherence contributes significantly to the effectiveness of writing in achieving its intended purpose.

How Do Writers Create Coherence in Writing?

  • Your thesis statement serves as the guiding star of your paper. It sets the direction and focus, ensuring all subsequent points relate back to this central idea.
  • Acknowledge and address potential counterarguments to strengthen your position and add depth to your writing.
  • Use the genres and organizational patterns appropriate for your rhetorical situation . A deductive structure (general to specific) is often effective, guiding the reader logically through your argument. Yet different disciplines may privilege more inductive approaches , such as law and philosophy.
  • When following a given-to-new order, writers move from what the reader already knows to new information. In formal or persuasive contexts, writers are careful to vet new information for the reader following information literacy laws and conventions .
  • Strategic repetition of crucial terms and your thesis helps your readers follow your main ideas and evidence for claims 
  • While repetition is useful, varying language with synonyms can prevent redundancy and keep the reader engaged.
  • Parallelism in sentences can provide rhythm and clarity, making complex ideas easier to follow.
  • Consistent use of pronouns avoids confusion and helps in maintaining a clear line of thought.
  • Arrange your ideas in a sequence that naturally builds from one point to the next, ensuring each paragraph flows smoothly into the next .
  • Signposting , or using phrases that indicate what’s coming next or what just happened, can help orient the reader within your argument.
  • Don’t bother repeating your argument in your conclusion. Prioritize conciseness. Yet end with a call to action or appeal to kairos and ethos .

Recommended Resources

  • Organization
  • Organizational Patterns

Brevity - Say More with Less

Brevity - Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence - How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Coherence - How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Diction

Flow - How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity - Inclusive Language

Inclusivity - Inclusive Language

Simplicity

The Elements of Style - The DNA of Powerful Writing

Unity

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