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Chromatography: Definition, Principle, Types and Application

  • Chromatography is derived from the Greek word ‘chroma’ means ‘color’ and ‘graphein’ means writing or recording.
  • In 1890, Mikhail Tsvet, a Russian Italian Botanist invented an earliest form of true chromatography technique for the separation of plant pigmentation.
  • But later, evolution of paper chromatography stroked and improved by Raphael E Liesegang in 1927. Archer Martin and Richard Synge again popularized it and further developed gas chromatography in collaboration with Anthony James.
  • Chromatography separates a component of mixture which is dissolved in a substance called the mobile phase and is carried out by a second substance called the stationary phase.
  • It separates a chemical mixture into an individual component and helps in analysis of the particular compound.

Chromatography is generally carried out by organic chemist and biochemists for analysis, isolation and purification.

Working principle of Chromatography

  • Chromatography is a method of physical separation in which components of mixture gets separated on two phases.
  • One of the phase is the immobile porous bed bulk liquid which is called stationary phase and the other phase is the mobile fluid that flows over the stationary phase under gravity.
  •  During the movement of the sample, a separated result is formed by the repeated desorption and sorption in the direction of the mobile phase migration.
  • Several key factors are responsible on the separation process like partition between liquid-liquid, affinity between molecular weight and characteristics related to liquid-solid adsorption.
  • An interaction between the molecules are physical and involves weak chemical bonds like dipole-dipole interaction and hydrogen bond formation and adhere to the stationary components.
  • Components that adhere strongly to the stationary phase moves slowly than those who adhere weakly.

Types of Chromatography

Commonly used chromatographic technique differs in the kind of stationary and mobile phase they use:

Paper chromatography

  • Thin layer chromatography

Liquid column chromatography

Size exclusion chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, affinity chromatography, gas chromatography.

  • High performance liquid chromatography

In a paper chromatography, separation of the mixture is performed on a paper strip which is a stationary phase and a liquid solvent acts as a mobile phase.

How does Paper Chromatography work?

write 2 applications of chromatography

  • A drop of mixture is placed on one end of the paper and dried. Then the paper is dipped into the solvent up to the spot.
  • In the paper chromatography, component separates in two ways:

In paper adsorption chromatography, stationary phase and mobile phase molecules act based on the degree of interaction. Higher affinity molecules are adsorbed for a long time where movement of speed is decreased.

However, low affinity molecules move faster thus, molecules are separated.

In paper partition chromatography, the moisture on the cellulose layers acts as a stationary phase where the mobile phase molecules are strongly absorbed hence, the molecules gets separated.

  • During the separation of molecules, retention factor is determined as;

Retention factor (R f ) = Distance travelled by solute

                                         Distance travelled by solvent

Thin layer chromatography (TLC)

Thin layer chromatography works on the basis of solid-liquid partition where silica or alumina plate used is a stationary phase and liquid as a mobile phase.

Basically, TLC is a technique that is used to separate non- volatile mixtures.

How does Thin Layer chromatography work?

write 2 applications of chromatography

A thin layer of silica gel or cellulose is used as an adsorbent and the solvent mixture as a mobile phase. The mixture of the solution is placed at a distance of 2cm above one end of the plate. Then the plate is placed in a jar containing a fluid solvent.

Moving phase is drawn up by the capillary action where the mixture rises up the plate carrying different components.

The plate is taken out after the mobile solvent reaches the top and its retention factor is calculated.

Liquid column chromatography is a technique used to separate when a molecules or ions are dissolved in a solvent, it separate the components using a column of adsorbent packed glass tube.

How does Liquid column chromatography work?

  • The slurry or powdered silica acts as a stationary phase which is loaded on a column or a paper and the sample is added to the liquid in the chromatographic system which acts as a mobile phase.
  • The degree of the adsorption depends upon the affinity of the molecules. If the components have a high affinity, the molecule moves down the column faster but low degree affinity molecules move slowly and remains at the top.
  • High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a modified version of the liquid column chromatography.

From its given name, size exclusion chromatography is a method where the molecules in a solution are separated in terms of their size or weight.

It is also known as gel filtration, gel permeation and molecular sieve chromatography.

How does size exclusion chromatography work?

write 2 applications of chromatography

  • The semi permeable porous polymer gel bead is a stationary phase molecules that is filled in a column and the sample is mixed with mobile phase liquid.
  • The molecules are partitioned on the basis of their respective sizes. Molecules with small size moves fast out of the column while the large size molecules stay at the top.
  • If the aqueous solution is used in mobile phase then it is gel filtration. Similarly, if an organic solvent is used, it is gel permeation chromatography.

In ion exchange chromatography, the separation is between the charged molecules where solid polymeric ion exchange resins are used.

This technique is mostly used to purify the drinking water.

How does Ion exchange chromatography work?

write 2 applications of chromatography

  • In a column, charged ion resins are packed which is taken as stationary phase. The mixture with the charged particles when passed through the column binds to the oppositely charged resins.
  • If a negative charged molecule is used, it binds to the positively charged resins and vice versa.
  • Then an appropriate buffer is used to separate the complex charged molecules and resins.

The mixture is separated on the basis of affinity between the absorbent and the ligand.

Absorbent is the separation material where the ligand is the desired components in a mixture

How does Affinity Chromatography work?

write 2 applications of chromatography

  • Agarose or cellulose is loaded in a column as a solid support. The mixture of mobile phase is placed at a constant rate.
  • The ligand molecule complex is formed during the process and rests of the components are eluted out with the mobile phase.
  • Components with the stationary phase are obtained by changing pH and its ionic strength.

Gas chromatography is a technique of separation of chemical components which are usually organic molecules or gases and determines their presence.

How does Gas Chromatography work?

write 2 applications of chromatography

  • It is different from other chromatography because the gas acts as a mobile phase and the separation is vapor.
  • The sample is injected into the column which is either gas or liquid.
  • Helium is usually used as a carrier gas as a mobile phase which moves in the analyte through the column at their own rate.
  • The components are collected and their retention time is determined.

High Performance Liquid chromatography

HPLC is a modified version of liquid column chromatography. As smaller particles size <10 microns are separated with a high pressure.

How does HPLC work?

write 2 applications of chromatography

  • Cellulose or silica is taken in a column of glass tube where sample mixture of mobile phase is introduced from the top of the column and a high pressure is passed through a pump at a constant rate.
  • The components are separated on the basis of different adsorption.
  • High affinity molecules remain adsorbed for a long time and moves slowly while low affinity molecules move faster.
  • The process is similar as of liquid column chromatography but only a solvent is forced under high pressure up to 400atm.
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): Principle, Instrumentation, and Applications

Application of chromatography

  • In molecular biology, protein separation, insulin and enzyme purification and some biochemical processes, HPLC is used. It is also applied in the study of proteomics and metabolomics.
  • In chemical industries, HPLC and GC is used for the water and air purification and in pesticides and oil testing.
  • In pharmaceutical industries, chemicals of different weight and sizes are separated and identified and also detects the unknown compounds.
  • In food industries, toxins and food additives are determined.

References:

  • https://www.khanacademy.org/science/class-11-chemistry-india/xfbb6cb8fc2bd00c8:in-in-organic-chemistry-some-basic-principles-and-techniques/xfbb6cb8fc2bd00c8:in-in-methods-of-purification-of-organic-compounds/a/principles-of-chromatography
  • https://microbenotes.com/chromatography-principle-types-and-applications/
  • https://microbenotes.com/types-of-chromatography/
  • Poole, C. F. (2000).  CHROMATOGRAPHY. Encyclopedia of Separation Science, 40–64.

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Chromatography is the separation of mixtures by distribution between two or more immiscible phases. In chemical laboratories, where it is used for analysis, isolation, and purification, chromatography is the most used separation technique. It is also frequently used in the chemical process industry as a part of small and large-scale production.

There are many types of Chromatography, e.g. Adsorption Chromatography, Thin Layer Chromatography, Column Chromatography, Partition Chromatography, etc. Paper Chromatography is an example of Partition Chromatography. Let’s learn more about Chromatography, its meaning, principle, types, and applications along with FAQs on them, in this article!

Chromatography Definition

Chromatography is a technique used to affect the separation of two or more dissolved solids contained within a solution in very small quantities. In Greek, the word ‘chroma’ means colour and ‘graphein’ is used to indicate writing. Initially, the technique was used for the separation of colors. 

The substance that has to be segregated during the process of chromatography is known as an analyte. It basically refers to the component needed from the mixture. It is a physical process in which the solutes, that is the components of a sample mixture are segregated as a result of their differential distribution between the stationary and mobile phases.

Chromatography Diagram

Terms used in Chromatography

Let’s learn some of the terms that are frequently used in chromatography

  • Analyte: Analyte is the substance that is to be separated from the mixture during chromatography.
  • Mobile Phase: Mobile Phase in Chromatography is the component that moves with the sample. It is either a gas or a liquid and is passed through the column where the components of the mixture are absorbed.
  • Stationary Phase: Stationary Phase in Chromatography is the one that doesn’t move with the sample. It is generally a porous solid that absorbs components from the mobile phase.
  • Eluent: Eluent refers to the fluid that enters and passes through the chromatographic column.
  • Elute: Elute is the fluid containing the sample that exits the chromatographic column
  • Elution: Elution is the process of removal or extraction of a solid by washing out it with a suitable solvent in a chromatographic column.

Also Read: Separation of Mixtures 

Principles of Chromatography

The separation technique of chromatography is dependent on the principle of partitioning the constituent components between two phases – a Mobile Phase and a Stationary Phase. The mobile phase is used to indicate the mixture of the substances to be separated and dissolved in a liquid or a gas. The stationary phase is used to describe a porous solid matrix through which the sample present in the mobile phase percolates.

The method of chromatography is based on the fact that the dissolved substances in the same solvent may have differing solubility. The solute with a greater solubility rises faster and segregates from the mixture.

The different solubility of the analyte is due to the differential affinity or the different strength of adhesion towards the mobile and stationary phases. The affinity of an analyte can be explained by two terms, the first is adsorption and the second is solubility. Adsorption is the ability to get attached to the surface of the stationary phase while solubility is the ability to dissolve in the mobile phase.

Analyte having higher adsorption will slowly pass through the column while Analyte having high solubility will move faster through the column. The difference in the solubility and adsorption is due to the difference in polarity towards different phases which determines the extent of adsorption and solubility. For Example, a polar analyte will adsorb better to a polar stationary phase thus moving slowly through the column, and a non-polar analyte will better dissolve in a non-polar mobile phase thus moving faster through the column.

Read More: 

Types of Chromatography

Chromatography can be classified into different types based on the following categories based on the physical state of mobile and stationary phases. The different types of Chromatography are mentioned below:

Adsorption Chromatography

Thin layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, column chromatography, gel filtration chromatography, liquid chromatography, gas chromatography.

  • Gas Liquid Chromatography

Adsorption Chromatography is based on the differential rate of adsorption of the solute to the stationary phase. In Adsorption Chromatography the mobile phase is liquid or gas in which solute is dissolved. Depending on the component’s absorptivity, different solutes are adsorbed on the adsorbent to varying degrees in the adsorption chromatography process. The components with higher absorptivity are carried to a shorter distance than those with lower absorptivity in this case as well by moving a mobile phase over a stationary phase. Adsorption Chromatography is used in the identification of carbohydrates, and fats, separation and isolation of amino acids, antibiotics, etc.

Adsorption Chromatography

Thin Layer Chromatography also called TLC Chromatography is used to separate non-volatile liquids using a thin stationary phase. As shown in the image above, the thin-layer chromatography (TLC) procedure uses a glass plate coated with a very thin layer of an adsorbent, such as silica gel or alumina, to separate the mixture of chemicals into its constituent parts.

Thin Layer Chromatography

Chrome Plate is the name of the plate used in this technique. A small area of the mixture’s solution is put 2 cm above one end of the plate to begin the separation process. The plate is then placed in a sealed container filled with an eluting fluid, which rises up the plate while lifting various mixture ingredients to various heights. The heights to which components rise are called spots which appear separately in a vertical arrangement. Each spot is characterized by a factor called as Retention Factor which is given by the formula mentioned below:

Retention Factor(R f ) = Distance Travelled By Sample/Distance Travelled by Solvent

Learn More, Retention Factor

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography also called HPLC Chromatography is a method in analytical chemistry to separate the components of a mixture and to identify and measure their quantity. This method was introduced by M.S. Tswett who was a botanist. A sample has two types of components named analyte and matrix. It is the analyte that we want to identify and quantify and the rest of the other components of the sample are called the Matrix.

In chromatography, the sample is introduced in the mobile phase which is a liquid that passes through a solid which is usually a solid or a liquid on the solid. In HPLC, the stationary phase is in a column packed with small porous particles and the liquid passes through it with the help of a pump. The sample then passes through the column. The particles of the sample move at different rates due to the varying nature of interaction with the stationary phase. After the sample crossed the column, the substances are identified and quantified using the computer and the software attached to it.

HPLC Chromatography

The different types of HPLC include Normal Phase HPLC, Reverse Phase HPLC, Ion Exchange HPLC, and Size Exclusion HPLC.

HPLC is used in the analysis of drugs, synthetic polymers, environmental particles, water purification, and isolation of various valuable products.

Column Chromatography is used to separate a single compound dissolved in a chemical mixture. Column Chromatography is based on the principle of differential rate of adsorption. In this method, a Column is prepared by filling the tube with a solid porous absorbent which is the stationary phase. A fluid containing the solute is passed through this column. The fluid entering the column is called eluent and in between the column solute gets adsorbed after that the fluid exits the column which is called the elute.

Column Chromatography

As shown in the figure above, column chromatography is a technique used to separate the components of a mixture using a column of appropriate adsorbent packed in a glass tube. A suitable eluant is produced to flow gently down the column in drop by drop manner after the mixture is placed on top of it.

The components are separated based on how much of each component has been adsorbed to the wall of the adsorbent column. The element with the greatest absorptivity is kept at the top while the other elements flow downward to various heights in accordance.

Column Chromatography is a low-cost technique used to isolate active ingredients from a compound, remove impurities, and in drug estimation.

Paper Chromatography (Partition Chromatography)

Partition Chromatography was introduced by Archer Martin and Richard Laurence. Partition Chromatography is used to separate the component from liquid-liquid phases. In Partition Chromatography, the retention factor is given by the distance travelled by the component from the mobile phase to the stationary phase and then back to the mobile phase. In Partition Chromatography one phase is polar and the other is non-polar. The difference in polarity leads to the separation of components.

Partition chromatography

A continuous differential partitioning of mixture components into a stationary phase and a mobile phase occurs in this process. Paper chromatography is a good example of partition chromatography. The stationary phase in this procedure is chromatography paper, which is suspended in a combination of solvents acting as the mobile phase.

The mixture to be separated is placed at an area at the bottom of the chromatographic paper, and as the solvent rises up the paper, the components are carried to varying degrees depending on how well they adhere to the paper. As a result, the components are divided at various heights.

One of the types of Partition Chromatography is Gel Filtration Chromatography. Gel Filtration Chromatography is based on the principle that molecules are partitioned between the stationary phase and a mobile phase that consists of a porous matrix whose porosity is of defined nature.

The column of such a matrix has two measurable liquid volumes named external and internal volumes. The molecules greater than the size of pores of the stationary phase will exclude from internal volume. The molecules whose size is smaller than the pores of the stationary phase make equilibrium with external and internal volume and migrate slowly. These smaller particles exclude the volume larger than the external volume.

Hence, in Gel Filtration Chromatography, the particles are separated in decreasing order of their molecular size. Gel Filtration Chromatography is used to separate proteins and peptides, cells and viruses, and other biomolecules.

Liquid Chromatography is a chromatographic technique in which the mobile phase is liquid. The solute is dissolved in the liquid mobile phase which is then passed through the column surrounded by the stationary phase or the plane over the stationary phase. The solute dissolved in the liquid phase gets adsorbed to the stationary phase depending on its interaction with the stationary phase. Liquid Chromatography is an essential tool when the mixture that is to be separated is colored. Depending on the components of chromatography Liquid Chromatography is of four types namely, Reversed Phase, Size Exclusion, Normal Phase, and Ion Exchange Chromatography.

Liquid Chromatography is used in testing food quality, forensic labs, testing ink samples, and environmental analysis. It is an easily available, relatively inexpensive technique and performed manually with better control.

Gas Chromatography is a technique used to separate volatile components in the gas phase. Gas Chromatography is a chromatographic technique that uses an inert gas as the mobile phase. When the stationary phase is solid in Gas Chromatography then it is called Gas-Solid Chromatography while when a liquid on an inert layer is used as a stationary phase then it is called Liquid-Gas Chromatography.

A Gas Chromatographer consists of a sample injection unit, a column, and a detector. The sample to be analyzed is injected into the sample injection system which heats up the sample and vaporizes it. After the sample heats up it moves up along with the gas mobile phase through the column which is separated by the stationary phase and the final compound is analyzed by the detector. The technique of Gas Chromatography was introduced by Mikhail Semenovich Tsvett.

Gas Chromatography is extensively used for the analysis of volatile mixtures, in analyzing air samples to analyze air quality, in the pharmaceutical industry, and in analyzing environmental toxins.

Gas-Liquid Chromatography

We know that every Chromatography involves two types of phases named mobile phase and stationary phase. In Gas-Liquid Chromatography, the mobile is a gas like helium and the stationary phase is a liquid which is of high boiling point and is absorbed into a solid. The velocity of movement of a compound in the chromatography machine depends on the time it spent with the gas i.e. the mobile phase.

The working of Gas-Liquid Chromatography can be understood in the following steps:

Step 1: First the sample is injected using a syringe in a temperature-controlled oven. Here, the sample boils and moves into the column in gaseous form with the help of helium gas i.e. mobile phase.

Step 2: The column is packed with porous rock coated with a waxy polymer.

Step 3: The temperature of the column ranges between 50C to 250C. With the proceeding of analysis, the temperature starts rising.

Step 4: Inside the column, the sample may condense, it may dissolve in the liquid, or may remain in the gas. In general, the substance partitions itself between the gaseous mobile phase and the stationary liquid phase. Any molecule of the sample spends some of its time with the liquid stationary phase and some with the gaseous mobile phase.

Applications of Chromatography

Here are some important uses and applications of Chromatography in our everyday life:

Used to Separate the Colors of a Dye

A thin strip of filter paper is taken and a line using a pencil is drawn at a noticeably visible length from the lower corner of the paper. A drop of ink using a fountain pen is projected at the centre of the drawn line. It is dried further. The filter paper is dipped in a beaker containing water as the solvent, in such a way that the ink drop is right above the water level. When the water rises up on the filter strip, it takes along with it the dye particles. Since the dye is soluble in water, the component in the dye with a greater solubility rises higher. As a result of this, the components of the dye get separated.

Chromatography in Food Department

Chromatography can be used to estimate the shelf life of food items by providing insight into when the food item gets spoiled. It can be used to understand the nutritional value of the food sample. It can be also used to analyze the presence of chemical additives in food. Can be used for the clarification and skimming of milk. Extraction of cream and production of cheese.

Chromatography in Chemical Industry

The purity detection of water samples and air samples is all done by Chromatography. Detection of the presence of toxic contaminants in pesticides and oils. The most commonly used technique is GC and HPLC.

Chromatography in Pharmaceutical Industry

Chromatography can be used to detect the presence of chemicals and elements in a given sample, present in traces. These chemical compounds can also be segregated and extracted on the basis of their molecular masses and constituent elements. Separation of drugs from the bloodstream. The removal of impurities and unknown compounds from the drugs as well as the estimation of drug sample purity can be analyzed using the chromatography technique.

Chromatography in Molecular Biology

Nucleic acid research can be simulated by the chromatography technique. EC-LC-MS, an extensive chromatography technique can be used to perform the study of proteomics and metabolomics. HPLC chromatography technique can be used to carry out protein separation operations. Several procedures like plasma fractionation and enzyme purification are based on chromatography.

Fractional Distillation Centrifugation Separation by Suitable Solvent

FAQs on Chromatography

1. what is chromatography, 2. what do you mean by rf value in chromatography.

Retention factor (Rf) refers to how far a fluid substance goes up a chromatography plate in paper chromatography. All chemicals have a standard RF value for each specific solvent, and RF values are used to compare unknown samples to known compounds.

3. What are Some Applications of Chromatography?

Following are some important applications of Chromatography: Paper Chromatography is used to Separate Colors of a Dye. Chromatography can be used to estimate the shelf life of food items by providing insight into when the food item gets spoiled. Chromatography can be used to detect the presence of chemicals and elements in a given sample, present in traces. The purity detection of water samples, and air samples are all done by Chromatography.

4. Explain the Technique used in Chromatography.

In case the substances to be segregated are colorless, then during the process of chromatography, the components may not be visible on the chromatogram. Therefore, the developing technique is the process of spraying a suitable reagent on the chromatogram such that the different components become visible on the chromatogram. The reagent is known as the developing reagent. 

5. List down some Limitations of Paper Chromatography.

Paper chromatography has some limitations such as: Greater components’ concentration. This may lead to streaking. It is semi-quantitative in nature. Irregular sample spotting Overlap in the spots with close R f value components. Uneven flow of solvent may lead to error in the calculations of R f values.

6. What is the difference between TLC and Paper Chromatography?

In TLC, Glass Plate coated with Silica Gel is used while in Paper Chromatography the stationary phase is Cellulose filter Paper filled with water in its pores.

7. What Chromatography is Used For?

Chromatography is a separation technique used for separation, purification, and identification of components for qualitative and quantitative analysis.

8. Who discovered Chromatography?

Chromatography was discovered by Mikhail Tsevet

9. How many types of Chromatography?

Chromatography is of many types such as Gas Chromatography, Liquid Chromatography, Adsorption Chromatography, Thin Layer Chromatography, Partition Chromatography, etc.

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Experimental Material 3

Over the past months we’ve been working hard to transition the Angular ecosystem to the latest version of Material Design for the Web. In the process we worked with the Material Design team at Google to understand what M3 means for the Web, we developed test harnesses to support migration to components with a new HTML structure, and today we’re proud to share our experimental support for the new specification.

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Since we originally released Angular in 2016 TypeScript and the entire web ecosystem evolved significantly. Over time some of the original APIs showed opportunities for improvement. For example, the view queries API Angular offers lacks type safety and has a suboptimal developer ergonomics.

At the same time, signals are a great primitive for representing values that change over time. In the series of RFCs we published last year, we shared a proposal for signal-based queries. Today we’re releasing a developer preview of this API:

You can learn more about viewChild and viewChildren on angular.io .

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Another Signal API we’re sharing in developer preview today is model inputs. Signal inputs, which we released in v17.1, are read-only so they can enforce best development practices.

For sharing state between a parent and a child component, we need writable signals and that’s the gap that model inputs fill:

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Hydration debugging support in Angular DevTools

It can be challenging to debug hydration DOM mismatch errors when you have different data between the client and the server or perform manual DOM manipulations.

A community contribution by Matthieu Riegler introduced hydration debugging support in Angular DevTools which can help you deal with this problem easier.

In the image above you can see how Angular DevTools shows you the mismatch between the DOM coming from the browser and the HTML the server produced.

Angular DevTools will update automatically for you in the next couple of days.

Image loader for Netlify

The NgOptimizedImage directive enables powerful performance features for your images, including automatic srcset . You can also specify an image loader.

Starting in v17.2 you can now use the provideNetlifyLoader to use this optimization with Netlify! Learn more in the documentation about the loader and the image directive .

Automatic placeholders with NgOptimizedImage

If you’re using the NgOptimizedImage directive for your images, you can now quickly add a blurry placeholder while an image loads. Just add the placeholder attribute to your image, and the image directive will automatically request a small version of the image, blur it, and display that until the full image is ready.

Not using an image loader? The new placeholder feature also supports inlined base64 image placeholders, so it can be used in any application!

Learn more about image placeholders .

And we have more!

Along with all these features we have a few more surprises for you:

  • Angular CLI now supports Bun’s package manager
  • You can now control the Vite development server prebundling
  • Support for custom postcss configuration in the application builder

You can find the changelog for Angular , Angular CLI , and Components on GitHub.

Thank you for all your help!

I wanted to take time to thank you for all the feedback we received from you on GitHub, in our RFCs, on social media, at events, and livestreams — it has been essential in shaping these modern APIs in Angular!

Next up is coming Angular v18 in May. Looking forward to showing you what we have for you next!

Minko Gechev

Written by Minko Gechev

Product and DevRel lead for Angular at Google.

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Create a form in Word that users can complete or print

In Word, you can create a form that others can fill out and save or print.  To do this, you will start with baseline content in a document, potentially via a form template.  Then you can add content controls for elements such as check boxes, text boxes, date pickers, and drop-down lists. Optionally, these content controls can be linked to database information.  Following are the recommended action steps in sequence.  

Show the Developer tab

In Word, be sure you have the Developer tab displayed in the ribbon.  (See how here:  Show the developer tab .)

Open a template or a blank document on which to base the form

You can start with a template or just start from scratch with a blank document.

Start with a form template

Go to File > New .

In the  Search for online templates  field, type  Forms or the kind of form you want. Then press Enter .

In the displayed results, right-click any item, then select  Create. 

Start with a blank document 

Select Blank document .

Add content to the form

Go to the  Developer  tab Controls section where you can choose controls to add to your document or form. Hover over any icon therein to see what control type it represents. The various control types are described below. You can set properties on a control once it has been inserted.

To delete a content control, right-click it, then select Remove content control  in the pop-up menu. 

Note:  You can print a form that was created via content controls. However, the boxes around the content controls will not print.

Insert a text control

The rich text content control enables users to format text (e.g., bold, italic) and type multiple paragraphs. To limit these capabilities, use the plain text content control . 

Click or tap where you want to insert the control.

Rich text control button

To learn about setting specific properties on these controls, see Set or change properties for content controls .

Insert a picture control

A picture control is most often used for templates, but you can also add a picture control to a form.

Picture control button

Insert a building block control

Use a building block control  when you want users to choose a specific block of text. These are helpful when you need to add different boilerplate text depending on the document's specific purpose. You can create rich text content controls for each version of the boilerplate text, and then use a building block control as the container for the rich text content controls.

building block gallery control

Select Developer and content controls for the building block.

Developer tab showing content controls

Insert a combo box or a drop-down list

In a combo box, users can select from a list of choices that you provide or they can type in their own information. In a drop-down list, users can only select from the list of choices.

combo box button

Select the content control, and then select Properties .

To create a list of choices, select Add under Drop-Down List Properties .

Type a choice in Display Name , such as Yes , No , or Maybe .

Repeat this step until all of the choices are in the drop-down list.

Fill in any other properties that you want.

Note:  If you select the Contents cannot be edited check box, users won’t be able to click a choice.

Insert a date picker

Click or tap where you want to insert the date picker control.

Date picker button

Insert a check box

Click or tap where you want to insert the check box control.

Check box button

Use the legacy form controls

Legacy form controls are for compatibility with older versions of Word and consist of legacy form and Active X controls.

Click or tap where you want to insert a legacy control.

Legacy control button

Select the Legacy Form control or Active X Control that you want to include.

Set or change properties for content controls

Each content control has properties that you can set or change. For example, the Date Picker control offers options for the format you want to use to display the date.

Select the content control that you want to change.

Go to Developer > Properties .

Controls Properties  button

Change the properties that you want.

Add protection to a form

If you want to limit how much others can edit or format a form, use the Restrict Editing command:

Open the form that you want to lock or protect.

Select Developer > Restrict Editing .

Restrict editing button

After selecting restrictions, select Yes, Start Enforcing Protection .

Restrict editing panel

Advanced Tip:

If you want to protect only parts of the document, separate the document into sections and only protect the sections you want.

To do this, choose Select Sections in the Restrict Editing panel. For more info on sections, see Insert a section break .

Sections selector on Resrict sections panel

If the developer tab isn't displayed in the ribbon, see Show the Developer tab .

Open a template or use a blank document

To create a form in Word that others can fill out, start with a template or document and add content controls. Content controls include things like check boxes, text boxes, and drop-down lists. If you’re familiar with databases, these content controls can even be linked to data.

Go to File > New from Template .

New from template option

In Search, type form .

Double-click the template you want to use.

Select File > Save As , and pick a location to save the form.

In Save As , type a file name and then select Save .

Start with a blank document

Go to File > New Document .

New document option

Go to File > Save As .

Go to Developer , and then choose the controls that you want to add to the document or form. To remove a content control, select the control and press Delete. You can set Options on controls once inserted. From Options, you can add entry and exit macros to run when users interact with the controls, as well as list items for combo boxes, .

Adding content controls to your form

In the document, click or tap where you want to add a content control.

On Developer , select Text Box , Check Box , or Combo Box .

Developer tab with content controls

To set specific properties for the control, select Options , and set .

Repeat steps 1 through 3 for each control that you want to add.

Set options

Options let you set common settings, as well as control specific settings. Select a control and then select Options to set up or make changes.

Set common properties.

Select Macro to Run on lets you choose a recorded or custom macro to run on Entry or Exit from the field.

Bookmark Set a unique name or bookmark for each control.

Calculate on exit This forces Word to run or refresh any calculations, such as total price when the user exits the field.

Add Help Text Give hints or instructions for each field.

OK Saves settings and exits the panel.

Cancel Forgets changes and exits the panel.

Set specific properties for a Text box

Type Select form Regular text, Number, Date, Current Date, Current Time, or Calculation.

Default text sets optional instructional text that's displayed in the text box before the user types in the field. Set Text box enabled to allow the user to enter text into the field.

Maximum length sets the length of text that a user can enter. The default is Unlimited .

Text format can set whether text automatically formats to Uppercase , Lowercase , First capital, or Title case .

Text box enabled Lets the user enter text into a field. If there is default text, user text replaces it.

Set specific properties for a Check box .

Default Value Choose between Not checked or checked as default.

Checkbox size Set a size Exactly or Auto to change size as needed.

Check box enabled Lets the user check or clear the text box.

Set specific properties for a Combo box

Drop-down item Type in strings for the list box items. Press + or Enter to add an item to the list.

Items in drop-down list Shows your current list. Select an item and use the up or down arrows to change the order, Press - to remove a selected item.

Drop-down enabled Lets the user open the combo box and make selections.

Protect the form

Go to Developer > Protect Form .

Protect form button on the Developer tab

Note:  To unprotect the form and continue editing, select Protect Form again.

Save and close the form.

Test the form (optional)

If you want, you can test the form before you distribute it.

Protect the form.

Reopen the form, fill it out as the user would, and then save a copy.

Creating fillable forms isn’t available in Word for the web.

You can create the form with the desktop version of Word with the instructions in Create a fillable form .

When you save the document and reopen it in Word for the web, you’ll see the changes you made.

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Say What? Chat With RTX Brings Custom Chatbot to NVIDIA RTX AI PCs

Chatbots are used by millions of people around the world every day, powered by NVIDIA GPU-based cloud servers. Now, these groundbreaking tools are coming to Windows PCs powered by NVIDIA RTX for local, fast, custom generative AI .

Chat with RTX , now free to download , is a tech demo that lets users personalize a chatbot with their own content, accelerated by a local NVIDIA GeForce RTX 30 Series GPU or higher with at least 8GB of video random access memory, or VRAM.

Ask Me Anything

Chat with RTX uses retrieval-augmented generation (RAG), NVIDIA TensorRT-LLM software and NVIDIA RTX acceleration to bring generative AI capabilities to local, GeForce-powered Windows PCs. Users can quickly, easily connect local files on a PC as a dataset to an open-source large language model like Mistral or Llama 2, enabling queries for quick, contextually relevant answers.

Rather than searching through notes or saved content, users can simply type queries. For example, one could ask, “What was the restaurant my partner recommended while in Las Vegas?” and Chat with RTX will scan local files the user points it to and provide the answer with context.

The tool supports various file formats, including .txt, .pdf, .doc/.docx and .xml. Point the application at the folder containing these files, and the tool will load them into its library in just seconds.

Users can also include information from YouTube videos and playlists. Adding a video URL to Chat with RTX allows users to integrate this knowledge into their chatbot for contextual queries. For example, ask for travel recommendations based on content from favorite influencer videos, or get quick tutorials and how-tos based on top educational resources.

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Since Chat with RTX runs locally on Windows RTX PCs and workstations, the provided results are fast — and the user’s data stays on the device. Rather than relying on cloud-based LLM services, Chat with RTX lets users process sensitive data on a local PC without the need to share it with a third party or have an internet connection.

In addition to a GeForce RTX 30 Series GPU or higher with a minimum 8GB of VRAM, Chat with RTX requires Windows 10 or 11, and the latest NVIDIA GPU drivers.

Editor’s note: We have identified an issue in Chat with RTX that causes installation to fail when the user selects a different installation directory. This will be fixed in a future release. For the time being, users should use the default installation directory (“C:\Users\<username>\AppData\Local\NVIDIA\ChatWithRTX”).

Develop LLM-Based Applications With RTX

Chat with RTX shows the potential of accelerating LLMs with RTX GPUs. The app is built from the TensorRT-LLM RAG developer reference project, available on GitHub . Developers can use the reference project to develop and deploy their own RAG-based applications for RTX, accelerated by TensorRT-LLM. Learn more about building LLM-based applications .

Enter a generative AI-powered Windows app or plug-in to the NVIDIA Generative AI on NVIDIA RTX developer contest, running through Friday, Feb. 23, for a chance to win prizes such as a GeForce RTX 4090 GPU, a full, in-person conference pass to NVIDIA GTC and more.

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Experiment_726_Paper Chromatography_1_2_1

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Experiment  726: Paper Chromatography:  A Technique of Separation and Identification  

Section  1:  Purpose and Summary  

One of the problems encountered most frequently in chemistry is that of separating a mixture into the pure substances which compose it. Most natural materials, such as seawater, air, oil, coal, and so on are mixtures. In order to study these materials chemically, we must first treat the mixture in some way to separate it into single, pure substances. (A "pure substance" consists entirely of just one thing; meaning one kind of molecule.) Because it does consist of just one thing, it always behaves in the same way when tested. For example, pure water always boils at 100°C (212°F), provided that the test is done at atmospheric pressure.  

Many different methods have been devised for separating mixtures into their components. In the present experiment, we will use a method called chromatography. It is used quite widely for making small-scale separations and identifications. The method works because of the differences in the ways various components of a dissolved mixture interact with a fixed solid.  The fixed solid can be made of different materials and in different shapes, depending on the version of chromatography that is being done.   One version is called paper chromatography. 

To perform paper chromatography to separate components of a mixture, there are several steps.  First, the mixture that is to be separated is dissolved (if it is not already in liquid form.) Then, a small drop of the solution is applied to a piece of special chromatography paper, which is a porous paper similar to filter paper. This drop makes a tiny spot on the paper. Many such spots (of different materials) may be placed side by side on the same piece of paper. Next, the spotted paper is made to stand in a small amount of some special solvent (liquid), in such a way that only the bottom edge of the paper is submerged in the liquid, not the spots. The paper acts like a wick, drawing the liquid up the paper by capillary action. The solvent then slowly rises up the paper, reaches the spots, and begins to dissolve them and carry the substances up the paper with it.  

The key to this separation is that the different components of the mixture in each spot interact with the paper differently, and so will be found (after a few minutes) to have reached different heights on the paper. This happens because some components are more strongly attracted to the paper (and so move more slowly), while others are more strongly attracted to the solvent. Any particular substance always moves at the same rate, no matter what else it may have been mixed with originally. For that reason, it can always be recognized and identified, because it will always rise to the same height, relative to the heights that the other components rise. 

The movement of any spot on the paper can be quantified by calculating its  R f  ( retention factor ) value after you have stopped the experiment and the paper has dried. 

    R f   =  distance traveled by the solute  

distance traveled by the solvent front 

The distances used in calculating  R f   values are measured as shown in the following figure. To determine the  distance traveled by the solute , measure from the point at which you originally applied the spot to the center or densest part of the spot. The  distance traveled   by the solvent front  is measured from the original point of application of the spot to the limit of movement of the solvent front (which must be marked immediately after the paper is removed from the beaker, because it may be nearly invisible after the solvent evaporates). 

If all conditions could be maintained constant,  R f   values would be constant. However, either variations in temperature or in the composition of the solvent phase or changes in the paper can alter the  R f   value. The  R f   value is useful mainly for expressing the relative mobility of two or more solutes in a particular chromatographic system. The absolute  R f   values may change from day to day, but their values in relation to each other remain nearly constant. 

Figure 1:  Completed paper chromatography containing only 1 dye. 

In this experiment, students will measure the values of several dyes in 3 different solvent systems. Students will also analyze an unknown mixture of dyes in order to identify the dyes present in the mixture.  The three different solvent systems are 1) laboratory water, 2) an aqueous solution of 0.10% sodium chloride (table salt), and 3) rubbing alcohol (70% isopropyl alcohol and 30% water).  By using different solvents, the dyes will travel differently in paper chromatography, and the  R f  values will be different.  The goal is to find a solvent that gives a different value for every dye as this will separate all the dyes from each other (scientists say that the dyes are  resolved  when the solvent system creates distinctly different values for each dye.)  When every dye is separated from all the other dyes, then you can match up  R f   values and identify each dye in the unknown mixture. 

Section 2:  Safety Precautions and Waste Disposal  

Safety Precautions:  

Use of eye protection is recommended for all experimental procedures.   

The rubbing alcohol used in this lab gives off fumes, so keep the beaker containing this solvent covered with plastic wrap when it is not in the hood. 

Waste Disposal:  

The rubbing alcohol should be disposed of in the organic waste container in the hood. The aqueous solvents may be poured down the drain. The chromatography paper can be disposed in the trash. 

Section 3: Procedure  

Preparing and developing the chromatogram  

Section 4 :    Analysis of the Chromatogra m s  

Section 5:  Identifying the components in the  Unknown  Mixture  

Post Lab Questions:  

Why use a pencil and not a pen to mark your chromatograms? 

2) Why is it important that the chromatography paper not touch the sides of the beaker? 

3) Which solvent system worked the best for you? Explain. 

4) Suppose a student did today’s experiment and obtained the following results: 

4a) Which solvent is best for separating Dyes #1-3? 

4b) Assume that the student receives an Unknown mixture that contains Component Dye #2 and Component Dye #3.  Draw the chromatogram the student would expect to obtain when analyzing Dye #1, Dye #2, Dye #3 and her “Component” mixture when using the best solvent, the same solvent you picked in question 4a.  Include the points of application and the solvent front in your drawing. 

Notes: 

  • Analytical Chemistry

Paper Chromatography

What is paper chromatography.

Chromatography technique that uses paper sheets or strips as the adsorbent being the stationary phase through which a solution is made to pass is called paper chromatography. It is an inexpensive method of separating dissolved chemical substances by their different migration rates across the sheets of paper. It is a powerful analytical tool that uses very small quantities of material. Paper chromatography was discovered by Synge and Martin in the year 1943.

Table of Contents

Paper chromatography principle, paper chromatography diagram, paper chromatography procedure, paper chromatography applications.

  • Types of Paper Chromatography
  • Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

The principle involved can be partition chromatography or adsorption chromatography. Partition chromatography because the substances are partitioned or distributed between liquid phases. The two phases are water held in pores of the filter paper and the other phase is a mobile phase which passes through the paper. When the mobile phase moves, the separation of the mixture takes place. The compounds in the mixture separate themselves based on the differences in their affinity towards stationary and mobile phase solvents under the capillary action of pores in the paper. Adsorption chromatography between solid and liquid phases, wherein the solid surface of the paper is the stationary phase and the liquid phase is the mobile phase.

Diagram of Paper Chromatography

Below we have explained the procedure to conduct Paper Chromatography Experiment for easy understanding of students.

  • Selecting a suitable type of development: It is decided based on the complexity of the solvent, paper, mixture, etc. Usually ascending type or radial paper chromatography is used as they are easy to perform. Also, it is easy to handle, the chromatogram obtained is faster and the process is less time-consuming.
  • Selecting a suitable filter paper : Selection of filter paper is done based on the size of the pores and the sample quality.
  • Prepare the sample: Sample preparation includes the dissolution of the sample in a suitable solvent (inert with the sample under analysis) used in making the mobile phase.
  • Spot the sample on the paper: Samples should be spotted at a proper position on the paper by using a capillary tube.
  • Chromatogram development: Chromatogram development is spotted by immersing the paper in the mobile phase. Due to the capillary action of paper, the mobile phase moves over the sample on the paper.
  • Paper drying and compound detection : Once the chromatogram is developed, the paper is dried using an air drier. Also, detecting solution can be sprayed on the chromatogram developed paper and dried to identify the sample chromatogram spots.

There are various applications of paper chromatography . Some of the uses of Paper Chromatography in different fields are discussed below:

  • To study the process of fermentation and ripening.
  • To check the purity of pharmaceuticals.
  • To inspect cosmetics.
  • To detect the adulterants.
  • To detect the contaminants in drinks and foods.
  • To examine the reaction mixtures in biochemical laboratories.
  • To determine dopes and drugs in humans and animals.

Types of paper chromatography:

  • Ascending Paper Chromatography – The techniques goes with its name as the solvent moves in an upward direction.
  • Descending Paper Chromatography – The movement of the flow of solvent due to gravitational pull and capillary action is downwards, hence the name descending paper chromatography.
  • Ascending – Descending Paper Chromatography – In this version of paper chromatography, movement of solvent occurs in two directions after a particular point. Initially, the solvent travels upwards on the paper which is folded over a rod and after crossing the rod it continues with its travel in the downward direction.
  • Radial or Circular Paper Chromatography – The sample is deposited at the centre of the circular filter paper. Once the spot is dried, the filter paper is tied horizontally on a Petri dish which contains the solvent.
  • Two Dimensional Paper Chromatography – Substances which have the same r f values can be resolved with the help of two-dimensional paper chromatography.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What are the advantages of paper chromatography.

Paper Chromatography Has Many Benefits Simple and rapid Paper chromatography necessitates a minimal amount of quantitative material. Paper chromatography is less expensive than other chromatography methods. The paper chromatography method can identify both unknown inorganic and organic compounds. Paper chromatography takes up little space when compared to other analytical methods or equipment. Outstanding resolving power

Why water is not used in paper chromatography?

It is preferable to use a less polar solvent, such as ethanol, so that the non-polar compounds will travel up the paper while the polar compounds will stick to the paper, separating them.

What are the limitations of Paper Chromatography?

Limitations of Paper Chromatography are as follows- Paper chromatography cannot handle large amounts of sample. Paper chromatography is ineffective in quantitative analysis. Paper chromatography cannot separate complex mixtures. Less Accurate than HPLC or HPTLC

What is the importance of paper chromatography?

Paper chromatography has traditionally been used to analyse food colours in ice creams, sweets, drinks and beverages, jams and jellies. Only edible colours are permitted for use to ensure that no non-permitted colouring agents are added to the foods. This is where quantification and identification come into play.

Is paper chromatography partition or adsorption?

A type of partition chromatography is paper chromatography.

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COMMENTS

  1. Applications of Chromatography

    Formaldehyde. N2o3. Clothing Fabrics. Sodium Bromide. Polyurethane Foam. Applications of Chromatography - Chromatography has several significant applications in many pharmaceutical sectors and also in the food and chemical industries as well. Learn about the important applications of chromatography here.

  2. 26.6: Applications of Chromatography

    26.6: Applications of Chromatography. Page ID. David Harvey. DePauw University. Although the primary purpose of chromatography is the separation of a complex mixture into its component parts, as outlined here, a chromatographic separation also provides qualitative and quantitative information about our samples.

  3. Chromatography- Definition, Principle, Types, Applications

    Chromatography is an important biophysical technique that enables the separation, identification, and purification of the components of a mixture for qualitative and quantitative analysis. The Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett coined the term chromatography in 1906. The first analytical use of chromatography was described by James and Martin in ...

  4. 14 Types of Chromatography (Definition, Principle, Steps, Uses)

    Purification of bioactive glycolipids, showing antiviral activity towards HSV-1 (Herpes Virus). 5. Flash chromatography. Flash chromatography is a separation technique where smaller sizes of gel particles are used as stationary phase, and pressurized gas is used to drive the solvent through the column.

  5. 2.1.6: Applications of Chromatography

    The LibreTexts libraries are Powered by NICE CXone Expert and are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739.

  6. 26: Introduction to Chromatographic Separations

    26.1: A General Description of Chromatography. In chromatography we pass a sample-free phase, which we call the mobile phase, over a second sample-free stationary phase that remains fixed in space. We inject the sample into the mobile phase where its components partition between the mobile phase and the stationary phase.

  7. Chromatography

    Chromatography, pronounced / ˌkroʊməˈtɒɡrəfi /, is derived from Greek χρῶμα chroma, which means "color", and γράφειν graphein, which means "to write". The combination of these two terms was directly inherited from the invention of the technique first used to separate pigments. [7]

  8. Principles of chromatography

    solvent moving through the column. Stationary phase or adsorbent. substance that stays fixed inside the column. Eluent. fluid entering the column. Eluate. fluid exiting the column (that is collected in flasks) Elution. the process of washing out a compound through a column using a suitable solvent.

  9. Chromatography

    chromatography, technique for separating the components, or solutes, of a mixture on the basis of the relative amounts of each solute distributed between a moving fluid stream, called the mobile phase, and a contiguous stationary phase. The mobile phase may be either a liquid or a gas, while the stationary phase is either a solid or a liquid.

  10. Chromatographic techniques: types, principles, and applications

    5.2. Chromatographic techniques based on the bed shape5.2.1. Column chromatography. Column chromatography is the method of choice mainly for the separation and purification of biomolecule [17].The sample can be protein with unique characteristics varying in size, shape, net charge, and capacity of binding [18].The process takes place by a selective adsorption of a mixture of proteins to the ...

  11. Chromatography Principle and its Types

    What is Chromatography? Chromatography is the technique for the separation, purification, and testing of compounds. The term "chromatography" is derived from Greek, chroma meaning, "colour," and graphein meaning "to write.". In this process, we apply the mixture to be separated on a stationary phase (solid or liquid) and a pure solvent such as water or any gas is allowed to move ...

  12. Chromatography: Definition, Principle, Types and Application

    Chromatography is a method of physical separation in which components of mixture gets separated on two phases. One of the phase is the immobile porous bed bulk liquid which is called stationary phase and the other phase is the mobile fluid that flows over the stationary phase under gravity. During the movement of the sample, a separated result ...

  13. Mention any two applications of chromatography.

    Solution. Applications of chromatography: Chromatography is a method that is used in laboratories for the separation of a mixture. It is used to test drug levels and water purity. It is also used to determine the nutritional value of the food sample. It is used to determine the type of chlorophyll in various photosynthetic organisms.

  14. Chromatography: Definition, Principle, Types & Applications

    Chromatography is a technique used to affect the separation of two or more dissolved solids contained within a solution in very small quantities. In Greek, the word 'chroma' means colour and 'graphein' is used to indicate writing. Initially, the technique was used for the separation of colors.

  15. 27.4: Applications of Gas Chromatography

    Gas chromatography is widely used for the analysis of a diverse array of samples in environmental, clinical, pharmaceutical, biochemical, forensic, food science and petrochemical laboratories. Table 27.4.1 provides some representative examples of applications. Table 27.4.1 .

  16. A review of Chromatography: principles, Classification, Applications

    Applications of liquid chromatography In Pharmaceutical applications [24-27], 1-evaluate of pharmaceutical product shelf- life.2-Identify active constituents in dosage forms. 3- develop ...

  17. Chromatography Application

    Milestones in the Development of Liquid Chromatography. L.R. Snyder, J.W. Dolan, in Liquid Chromatography: Fundamentals and Instrumentation, 2013 1.1.1 Developments before 1960. A good account of the discovery of chromatography by Tswett is given in [2] and [14, pp. 4-6]. Despite a few subsequent applications of chromatography in other laboratories [14, pp. 7-9], this technique became ...

  18. HPLC: Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, Diagram

    High-performance liquid chromatography or commonly known as HPLC, is an analytical technique used to separate, identify or quantify each component in a mixture. The mixture is separated using the basic principle of column chromatography and then identified and quantified by spectroscopy. In the 1960s, the column chromatography LC with its low ...

  19. Angular v17.2 is now available. We rarely write blog posts about minor

    Today we have two new such APIs for you — signal queries and model inputs. Signal queries. Since we originally released Angular in 2016 TypeScript and the entire web ecosystem evolved significantly. Over time some of the original APIs showed opportunities for improvement.

  20. 12.S: Chromatographic and Electrophoretic Methods (Summary)

    Other separation techniques, however, find specialized applications. Of particular importance are: ion-exchange chromatography for separating anions and cations; size-exclusion chromatography for separating large molecules; and supercritical fluid chromatography for the analysis of samples that are not easily analyzed by GC or HPLC.

  21. Paper Chromatography- Definition, Types, Principle, Steps, Uses

    2. PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY MOBILE PHASE. Pure solvents, buffer solutions or mixture of solvents can be used. ... Applications of Paper Chromatography. To check the control of purity of pharmaceuticals, ... Sagar has more than ten years of experience in blogging, content writing, and SEO. Sagar was awarded the SfAM Communications Award 2015 ...

  22. Create a form in Word that users can complete or print

    Show the Developer tab. If the developer tab isn't displayed in the ribbon, see Show the Developer tab.. Open a template or use a blank document. To create a form in Word that others can fill out, start with a template or document and add content controls.

  23. 12: Chromatographic and Electrophoretic Methods

    12.2: General Theory of Column Chromatography Of the two methods for bringing the stationary phase and the mobile phases into contact, the most important is column chromatography. In this section we develop a general theory that we may apply to any form of column chromatography. 12.3: Optimizing Chromatographic Separations

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    Develop LLM-Based Applications With RTX. Chat with RTX shows the potential of accelerating LLMs with RTX GPUs. The app is built from the TensorRT-LLM RAG developer reference project, available on GitHub. Developers can use the reference project to develop and deploy their own RAG-based applications for RTX, accelerated by TensorRT-LLM.

  25. Experiment_726_Paper Chromatography_1_2_1

    Figure 1: Completed paper chromatography containing only 1 dye. In this experiment, students will measure the values of several dyes in 3 different solvent systems. Students will also analyze an unknown mixture of dyes in order to identify the dyes present in the mixture. The three different solvent systems are 1) laboratory water, 2) an ...

  26. Paper chromatography

    Paper Chromatography Principle. The principle involved can be partition chromatography or adsorption chromatography. Partition chromatography because the substances are partitioned or distributed between liquid phases. The two phases are water held in pores of the filter paper and the other phase is a mobile phase which passes through the paper.