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The Literature Value in Chemistry: Understanding Its Role and Benefits

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By Happy Sharer

literature value definition chemistry

Introduction

Literature value is an important concept in the field of chemistry. It refers to the concentration of a substance that is mentioned in scientific literature as having been successfully used in an experiment. Literature values are often used to determine the concentrations of chemicals needed for a reaction to occur, or to compare the results of an experiment with those from other experiments.

Chemistry relies on literature values to inform and guide scientists in their research and experiments. By understanding the role of literature value in chemistry, one can gain a better understanding of the principles of chemistry and how to apply them when solving problems.

Exploring the Role of Literature Value in Chemistry

Exploring the Role of Literature Value in Chemistry

What is literature value? Literature value is a measure of the concentration of a particular substance that has been used in past experiments and documented in scientific literature. This measurement is typically expressed as molarity (M) or parts per million (ppm).

How does literature value impact chemical reactions? Literature values provide guidance to scientists in determining the concentrations of chemicals required for a successful experiment. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, scientists can accurately predict the outcome of the reaction and adjust their experiments accordingly.

Examples of literature values in various fields of chemistry include the acidity of a solution, the boiling point of a compound, and the solubility of a compound. By understanding the literature values associated with these aspects of chemistry, scientists can more accurately predict the outcomes of their experiments.

An Overview of Literature Value in Chemistry

Understanding the principles of literature value is essential for chemists. Literature values provide insight into the concentration of chemicals needed for a reaction to occur, as well as the expected outcome of the reaction. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, chemists can more accurately predict the outcome of the reaction and adjust their experiments accordingly.

The importance of understanding literature value in chemistry cannot be overstated. Literature values are essential for chemists to understand the principles of chemistry and to accurately predict the outcomes of their experiments. Without an understanding of literature values, chemists cannot accurately predict the outcome of their experiments and may not be able to adjust their experiments accordingly.

Using Literature Value to Understand Chemical Reactions

Using Literature Value to Understand Chemical Reactions

Analyzing literature values to gain insight into chemical reactions is an important part of the scientific process. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, chemists can more accurately predict the outcome of the reaction and adjust their experiments accordingly. For example, if a chemist knows the literature value for the boiling point of a compound, they can adjust the temperature of their experiment to achieve the desired result.

Applying literature values to predict outcomes of chemical reactions is also an important part of the scientific process. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, chemists can more accurately predict the outcome of the reaction and adjust their experiments accordingly. For example, if a chemist knows the literature value for the solubility of a compound, they can adjust the concentration of the compound in their experiment to achieve the desired result.

The Benefits of Understanding Literature Value in Chemistry

The Benefits of Understanding Literature Value in Chemistry

Understanding literature value in chemistry can provide numerous benefits to scientists. Improved accuracy and precision in problem solving are two of the most obvious benefits. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, chemists can more accurately predict the outcome of the reaction and adjust their experiments accordingly. This improved accuracy and precision can lead to better results in experiments.

Increased confidence in problem solving is another benefit of understanding literature value in chemistry. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, chemists can more confidently predict the outcome of the reaction and adjust their experiments accordingly. This increased confidence can lead to greater success in experiments.

Better understanding of chemical concepts is yet another benefit of understanding literature value in chemistry. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, chemists can gain a better understanding of the underlying principles of chemistry and how they affect the outcome of the reaction.

Applying Literature Value to Solve Problems in Chemistry

Using literature value to solve problems in chemistry is an important part of the scientific process. There are several steps to using literature value to solve problems in chemistry. First, the chemist must identify the literature values associated with the reaction. Second, the chemist must analyze the literature values to gain insight into the reaction. Third, the chemist must apply the literature values to predict the outcome of the reaction. Fourth, the chemist must adjust the experiment accordingly to achieve the desired result.

Examples of how literature value can be used to solve problems in chemistry include determining the optimal temperature for a reaction, predicting the outcome of a reaction based on the literature values for the reactants, and adjusting the concentration of a reactant to achieve the desired result. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, chemists can more accurately predict the outcome of the reaction and adjust their experiments accordingly.

In conclusion, understanding the role of literature value in chemistry is essential for chemists. Literature values provide insight into the concentration of chemicals needed for a reaction to occur, as well as the expected outcome of the reaction. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, chemists can more accurately predict the outcome of the reaction and adjust their experiments accordingly. Additionally, understanding literature value in chemistry can provide numerous benefits to scientists, such as improved accuracy and precision in problem solving, increased confidence in problem solving, and better understanding of chemical concepts.

Using literature value to solve problems in chemistry is an important part of the scientific process. By understanding the literature values associated with a particular reaction, chemists can more accurately predict the outcome of the reaction and adjust their experiments accordingly. Ultimately, understanding literature value in chemistry is essential for chemists to gain a better understanding of the principles of chemistry and to accurately predict the outcomes of their experiments.

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Hi, I'm Happy Sharer and I love sharing interesting and useful knowledge with others. I have a passion for learning and enjoy explaining complex concepts in a simple way.

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Chemical Information for Chemists: A Primer

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1.1 Chemical Information Three Ways: The Big Picture Of Big Information

1.2 approaching the literature: principles to bear in mind when you are searching for chemical information, 1.2.1 scholarly literature is evaluated to uphold scientific integrity and vitality, 1.2.2 data provenance and evaluation is a critical part of the research process, 1.2.3 scientific literature is considered intellectual property, 1.2.4 scholarly literature is structured to facilitate research, 1.2.5 the literature is a web of potential, 1.2.6 libraries and other information providers offer disambiguation, 1.3 getting started with the chemical literature, 1.3.1 your literature research is only as good as your input and process, 1.3.2 how to use the literature to be a more efficient chemist, chapter 1: introduction to the chemical literature.

  • Published: 22 Oct 2013
  • Special Collection: 2014 ebook collection , RSC eTextbook Collection Product Type: Textbooks
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L. McEwen, in Chemical Information for Chemists: A Primer, ed. J. Currano and D. Roth, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013, pp. 1-27.

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To begin, we will consider the ways in which literature is involved in the research process, how scientists are involved in the production and consumption of this literature, and the role of information providers and the library. The scholarly communication cycle is at the core of the scientific endeavor for both research and teaching purposes and is standard practice across the disciplines. Published literature is the lasting product of scientific research. It captures and documents the ideas, methods, results, implications and applications of projects and makes this information available to the broader research community and society to further research developments, grants, products, marketing, competitive advantage, etc .

I recently welcomed a new group of chemistry graduate students with an orientation to the library at Cornell University. We started with a discussion of the role of literature in research, focused on the scope of specific library resources and services available, and highlighted a few key things the students could do right away to get started with their research. The idea was to funnel the vast world of chemistry-related literature into something bite-sized and immediately useful while not losing sight of how much is possible and how important robust literature research is to chemistry. We hope this book will accomplish something similar: provide a highly useful volume for a broad range of information-related needs across the chemistry research process. In this introduction, we hope to cover both the big picture of how information fits into the chemical enterprise and a few useful things to keep in mind when delving into the literature.

To begin, we will consider the ways in which literature is involved in the research process, how scientists are involved in the production and consumption of this literature, and the role of information providers and the library. The scholarly communication cycle is at the core of the scientific endeavor for both research and teaching purposes and is standard practice across the disciplines. Published literature is the lasting product of scientific research. It captures and documents the ideas, methods, results, implications and applications of projects and makes this information available to the broader research community and society to further research developments, grants, products, marketing, competitive advantage, etc. It is important for researchers to determine exactly when in their research process to disseminate their findings to the community and which of the many available avenues of communication is most appropriate. These decisions are influenced by place of work (academic, government, industry), job level, and practices in various chemistry sub-disciplines. The resulting published literature in chemistry is as varied and complex as the science it represents, and includes articles, patents, technical reports, conference proceedings, book chapters, and data sets.

Other complexities of publishing research lie in impact and prestige, discoverability and re-use, and availability and persistence. Tying one's name to research, being published and noted, is important to the success of many scientists. As purveyors of the literature publication process, publishers are also interested in procuring the most critical observations and ideas with the best potential. In addition to channeling the discovery of this research, they have high stakes in assuring the quality of research they publish and upholding the standards of scientific integrity. Peer-review is a long established and well-respected feature of scientific publication across most publishers. Clustering articles by disciplinary interest and novel potential further impacts discovery of worthy research. Well-respected publishers add value to the publication process through careful management of these and other editorial processes.

In addition to furthering knowledge itself, quality scientific research can also lead to new industrial applications and product development, improvements in scientific literacy and education, and informed public policy and national security. The field of chemistry is relatively unique, as it is both an academic discipline and an industry active in research and development. The extensive industrial sector is a heavy consumer of the published research literature, as well as a producer of its own research, primarily expressed in the form of patents. Commercial processes place special demands on presentation, authority, and accessibility of chemical information, which in turn significantly impacts the focus of government research and the experience of the academic chemistry research environment. In addition to publication of primary research, government contribution to the chemical information landscape includes high-quality data sets, standards for processes and safety, and education guidelines. Scientific societies such as the American Chemical Society in the US or the Royal Society of Chemistry in the UK play major roles in advocating and focusing on infrastructure for producing, re-using and building on quality scientific information.

The availability and persistence of published literature has a profound impact on the research process. Libraries and other information providers are concerned with the practical issues around discoverability and utility of published information. A variety of commercial and non-profit entities offer specialized tools to help researchers sift through the vast primary chemistry literature of journals, patents, registered compounds, and data sets. Abstracts are increasingly available online at no cost, publishers provide electronic alerts and news feeds, and conferences and social networks further highlight the availability of new research publications. In chemistry fields, most published content requires payment for access, reflecting both the expense to ensure quality and the potential for high-value re-use. With the advent of electronic information, pricing options have shifted from outright sale of copies to licensed access, which in turn has implications for ownership and responsibility of long-term archiving. Libraries remain major access points to and stewards of the chemistry literature; they maintain a high awareness of quality, and advise and collaborate with service providers.

In addition to providing researchers with access points to scientific information, libraries have historically taken on the task of preserving the scholarly literature to enable future use. It is easy to overlook the importance of older publications, but they constitute a significant portion of the accumulated scientific knowledge, and are responsible for supporting scientific development over the past several hundred years. In chemistry, where structural and reaction principles do not change drastically over time, older publications are very often still vital to current progress in a field, and in interdisciplinary research areas, past work is often re-considered from different perspectives. Research libraries worldwide store vast collections of journals in hard copy, often in state-of-the-art, climate-controlled, high-density storage facilities with sophisticated inventory control for easy retrieval. Publishers are also making digital back-files of older articles available for purchase or licensing, and libraries and publishers are working together to pursue preservation solutions, including the development of third-party archiving services, that will ensure access to the content in any future, foreseen or otherwise.

It is as important to develop good literature practices for your work as it is to improve your experimental and technical research skills. Good literature practices in scientific research require regular time spent reading or searching for journal articles and other relevant literature reviews.  One should cultivate this practice to build competence in a new area, keep abreast of activity in areas of interest, become aware of exciting new possibilities and strong research groups, and scope out advantageous opportunities for collaboration and publication. Be aware of the scope of literature and information sources available to support both the theoretical and experimental developments of your research endeavors. The remaining chapters of this volume will introduce and guide you through a broad array of the most critical information resources and searching methods in chemistry research. It is well worth a systematic read to be aware of the landscape, and frequent referral for more focused guidance as you practice your research.

Before proceeding farther into the landscape, there are a few general background areas worth delving into more deeply to better understand the literature resources you will use: basic information evaluation concepts; copyright and other intellectual property matters; how the published literature is structured; connectivity potential in the digital age; how libraries and other information providers can support your research; and the scientific input and approach you bring to your search process.

A basic distinction of scholarly literature is that it has been evaluated to some extent before publication. It is important to the quality of one's own research process to ascertain up front the quality of related research in a discipline. The researcher must ultimately make the final determination if a work is worth looking at, starting with an assessment of how it has already been evaluated by the larger scientific community.

The most common type of primary publication of scientific information for academics is the journal article, and the first entity that decides what primary research is published in journals is usually the journal's editor-in-chief. Editors of scientific journals look for research that is original, scientifically important, and that fits the journal's scope in subject matter and treatment. Further review of manuscripts by published peers in the same research area serves to “flag what's important, set aside what's pedestrian, and abjure what's fraudulent”. 1   A published article that has undergone a robust peer review and editorial process should contain data that tell a story and results that move the state of knowledge forward. The introduction of the article should set the stage for the story of the data analysis, and the novelty and intellectual interpretation of the research should be hammered home in the conclusion, giving a sense of the quality of thinking of the author.

Peer review is not a comprehensive evaluation system; reviewers do not generally repeat the experiments described, although review of supporting data is required in some characterization journals. The actual review process is not fail-safe and varies widely across publishers, which can significantly impact the reputation of a journal. The primary literature may be beset with a myriad of quality issues, including premature publication, lack of novelty, lack of focus or unclear explanation, inadequate review of the relevant literature, inadequate characterization of compounds created or altered in the research, missing or poorly designed experimental controls, failure to address alternate explanations, or unjustifiably strong statements.

Pre-reviewed research content is increasingly available online; conference proceedings, pre-print servers, research manuscript repositories associated with funding agencies, and community-supported, openly accessible and openly reviewed journals are a few of the examples. In the chemical disciplines, first disclosure and peer review of research findings carry significant weight in consideration of provenance, quality, and intellectual rights and are important considerations for the reputation and authority of the researchers themselves and particularly critical for commercial vitality in the industrial sector. Initial publication in an open or pre-peer-reviewed public venue may preclude later publication in journals with higher reputations or patenting to claim exploitable rights.

Even peer-reviewed journals vary widely in their reputation for quality and visibility of the research they publish, which in turn reflects on the reputation of the authors. One indicator of journal performance in contribution to scientific research is the number of citations by other research to the articles published in a particular journal. This principle underlies the Thomson Reuters Journal Impact Factor, which is often used by a broad range of literature users such as publishers trying to attract authors, institutions considering tenure for research faculty, researchers identifying top journals to monitor, and libraries attempting to prioritize access and preservation of journal content. Discovery service providers also consider the provenance of published literature and data, but tend to include a fairly broad approach to sources to give the chemical researcher the fullest information of the activity potential in their research area. Promising new journals may not be indexed until they have proven their potential, maybe through a high Journal Impact Factor, which takes two years to calculate.

Many research areas in chemistry generate and analyze significant volumes of data. Data associated with chemical research can appear directly in articles, in supplementary files referenced by articles, as part of compiled data sets, and in repositories of specialized types of chemical information. The provenance and quality of compound characterization and other published data are particularly important to chemistry research. Results and interpretation are only as good as the data on which they are based, and their potential for meaningful contribution to scientific knowledge depends on their correlation to other evidence or revelation of abnormal observations. As you work with both your own data and those you are re-using from other sources, it is critical to ascertain that they actually represent what they are purporting to and are reliable, based on the quality of the measurement process. The opportunity to apply promising methodologies on large production scales in the commercial sector hinges on adherence to standards and regulations of practice. You can imagine areas of chemistry, such as the development of drug formulations and construction materials, where lack of attention to safety, consistency, and reliability can not only compromise the outcome of the experiment but could potentially endanger vast numbers of people.

Quality data start with robust data collection practices, including documentation, using multiple sources of measurement, calibration of equipment, and using controls and/or standard reference data. It is most important for users of data to know how it was collected to determine if it is relevant, if it actually measures what was intended, and if its collection was executed in a sufficiently accurate and precise manner for re-use in the new context. Good documentation should include careful notation of all the parameters in which the data were measured, including equipment, conditions, methodology, characterized standards, and experimental context. Multiple sources of a measurement re-enforce the quality of the measurement technique and specific execution, and normalize inherent variability within and across chemical systems. Calibration to well-characterized standards also maximizes the technical quality of a measurement. The use of controls within an experiment or comparison of results to standard reference data establishes the value of the measurement that is distinct to a sample and of interest for further analysis. For example, the use of standard reference data to identify values related to specific structural characteristics of compounds is relevant to spectra searching, for example.

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) concerns itself with supporting robust chemical and physical data evaluation and addresses standards across four stages: data collection, basic evaluation, relational analysis, and modeling. 2   How data is collected, documented and stored can impact later accessibility to that data. Basic evaluation questions generally focus on the reproducibility of the data using the same collection methods. Relational analysis is concerned with consistency of the data at hand with other data that describe the material, such as related properties or independent reports of a particular property. Modeling calculations can indicate the predictability of the data as an indicator for this property under the conditions at hand. In practice, processes for assessing and assuring quality of data are especially well developed in materials research and production. Depending on your need when looking at published data, you might require quality indicators ranging from general specifications for a class of material to certified standards of specific compounds. In active research, you might find yourself working with commercial data with specifications provided by the manufacturer, or with preliminary data from collaborating projects.

NIST provides a decision tree to classify property data and determine appropriateness in the context of purpose and use. This protocol is freely available as a simple interactive assessment tool originally developed for the NIST Ceramic WebBook and is a reasonable check-list when working with any published data where quality and provenance is a consideration. 3   Indicative questions for literature and data evaluation include:

Is the source journal peer reviewed?

Are the experimental methods adequately described to be repeatable?

Are any compounds characterized well enough to identify?

Are the results consistent with other indications in the published literature?

Does the explanation build on previously published research?

Do the authors address alternate explanations of the data with further experiments?

As with the scientific research process in general, the provenance of the resulting observations and explanations is important when considering whether the information is of sufficient quality. If little is known concerning the who, what, why, where, when, and how aspects of a research project, it could be considered of indeterminate quality and therefore unacceptable for reference. Referencing the original source of the data, as well as any available provenance, lets the reader make a judgment about the quality and applicability of these data.

Data management is of increasing interest to research-granting agencies, including the National Science Foundation (NSF), which as of 2011 requires all granted projects to include a data management plan. In 2009, an Interagency Working Group on Digital Data developed recommendations for managing data, including some general components to consider for a management plan: “provide for the full digital data life cycle and…describe, as applicable, the types of digital data to be produced; the standards to be used; provisions and conditions for access; requirements for protection of appropriate privacy, confidentiality, security, or intellectual property rights; and provisions for long-term preservation”. 4   More or less specific guidelines are being developed by the various US funding agencies; the NSF is primarily leaving this to be determined at the level of peer-review and program management to reflect best practices for disciplines and other “communities of interest”. 5   The provenance documentation practices discussed above should be rigorous enough to cover most data management plan requirements.

Ultimately, the purpose of scientific research is to contribute to the greater scientific knowledge base in a useful way and lead to applications for society. The ideas and efforts towards this process are considered property of an intellectual nature and are governed through their documentation. The legal framework of intellectual property is to translate the association of scientists with novel ideas and processes into terms that can serve in the practicable everyday world of business, including documentation for provenance and remuneration. In legal terms, intellectual property is about ownership and the potential benefits therein. It was designed by Congress to address Article 1 of the United States Constitution: “to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Tımes to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries”. 6  

Novelty is a core consideration in supporting scientists’ and companies’ rights to own an idea or a process. The definition of novelty in most jurisdictions is delineated by first public disclosure: anywhere, in any venue, for any purpose. Because of the high potential for value, most publishers in the field of chemistry will not accept work that has been extensively disclosed in a public venue. Patent applicability can hinge on the date and nature of disclosure and becomes especially critical when coordinating rights globally. Ideally, the first public appearance of an idea that is well enough researched to enter the scientific record should be well documented, most often in a published article or patent application. These forms of communication are readily citable, with fairly rigorous presentation of content. However, the first public disclosure of one's research may often be much less rigorous, such as a presentation at a conference. As a result, chemists need to be mindful of future plans to publish in journals or file patent applications as they prepare their presentations.

Scientific research, particularly chemical research, is expensive. Public and private monies earmarked for basic research are available competitively. The chemical industry is interested in productive chemical technologies to make a return on the investment of development. Publications, including patents, are professional scientists’ and chemical companies’ key to sustainable funding and growth through claim to ownership. Most scientific publications are considered under one of two flavors of intellectual property, copyright, or patenting.

1.2.3.1 Copyright

In its legal form, copyright is at least two levels removed from the everyday world of scientific research. It does not relate to experimental design, nor does it contribute to the process of good writing. For most authors, it only seems to come into play when one is trying to publish, and then it often appears as a barrier. Why would a chemist want to have anything to do with copyright or even think about it? It comes down to basic issues surrounding the sharing of creative work with others and, in turn, re-using their work. Your greatness as a scientist lies in your ideas, but these remain in your head and might as well be mist unless you express them in a form that resonates with those whose attention you want. Once your audience takes notice, it will be of the idea, and, in the excitement, you want to be remembered as its originator. Copyright law provides a recognition stamp for a piece of work that captures an idea and governs the ways in which these ideas may be re-used by other scientists.

Copyright protects the expression of any creative act such as music, art, journalism, fiction writing, and many other endeavors where people may want to seek compensation and/or credit for their work. The author originally owns the rights to his or her work, meaning that, for the work to be “copyrighted”, he or she does not need to do anything more formal than capture it in a tangible medium (including online). However, as a legal tool, copyright must be able to stand up in court if the rights of ownership are in dispute. Every researcher hopes their work will be of sufficient interest in his or her discipline that it will be discovered and read by other researchers, granting agencies, and chemical businesses. The potential value of a paper is tied up in where it is exposed and what can then be done with the content, activities overseen by copyright. As the initial copyright owner, the author needs to consider how best to manage the exposure and re-use of the work to meet his or her personal and professional needs.

Copyright is automatically assigned to an idea “the moment it is created and fixed in a tangible form that it is perceptible either directly or with the aid of a machine or device”; 7   the rights and opportunities thereby granted are up to the owner to manage and stipulate to the public world. Currently, one of the primary roles of scientific publishers is to formally establish the first public disclosure of a work that invokes those rights, and reputable publishing houses are knowledgeable in both the scientific discipline and the ways of copyright. Publishers also provide additional value by coordinating with the vast network of publishing peers in a discipline to review the quality of the contribution and by placing the work among others of good quality in reputable journals, thus increasing the collective potential to be noticed by the right people. To manage and guarantee all of these services, publishers want a specified relationship with copyright that oversees the legal status of all these activities. In exchange for publishing your article, most scientific publishers will require transfer of your copyright: in effect, transfer of ownership of the work. As the original copyright owner, you always have the option to self-publish if you are prepared to manage your rights, the evidence of first disclosure and any further development and if you believe your work is strong enough to stand on its own.

For the vast majority of scientific articles published in traditional journals, once a manuscript is accepted for publication, it is likely that the authors will be asked to sign an agreement or contract that includes language regarding the copyright of the work. Many contracts require the author to transfer copyright to the publisher, meaning that they will then own all the rights to the article. To do anything further with the article, authors and readers alike will need to seek permission from the publisher as the new rights holder. This includes posting copies of the article on a website, sharing it with colleagues, and using figures in presentations or classes, even if the author is the one teaching them. It also includes reusing any of the content subsequently in a thesis or dissertation. Given the original intention of copyright to support the creativity of the original author and the rather dire impact of cutting you off from your work by transferring all such rights, many publishers will return several rights under the same contract, generally giving permission for the author to share copies with individual colleagues and re-use figures in presentations, classes and dissertations. Because the publisher continues to be the copyright owner, they will usually ask you to provide a citation or a copyright notice in the new venue for any part of your article that you re-use. The American Chemical Society presents FAQs and other learning materials on copyright for publishing authors. 8  

It is always an option to seek permission to do anything that is not specified in a contract, and most scientific publishers will grant this for non-profit oriented uses, especially by the original authors. To use other people's work, you will also need to seek permission from the copyright owner. It is not usually difficult to gain permission for common types of re-use, such as reproducing figures or quoting a brief section of text, many publishers now have automatic permissions systems, such as the RightsLink service used by the Publications Division of the American Chemical Society ( http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html ) and other major publishers, which can be used to grant permission for certain pre-determined uses. It is important to note that the requirements for re-use will differ from publisher to publisher, so it is important to follow the form through to the end. Individual scientists in academic institutions making copies of articles (print or digital) for their own general reading purposes usually do not need to seek direct permission from copyright owners to keep these copies. This type of use is provisioned in the Copyright Act as “fair use”. The Fair Use provision addresses a number of types of re-use commonly associated with academic, educational and other non-profit endeavors, such as limited and restricted copies for individual research and teaching. The general understanding is that the use will be small scale and not translate to commercial potential that is still protected for the owner. For more information on acceptable fair use, see The Factsheet on Fair Use, 9   the Circular 21 from the U.S. Copyright Office, 10   or consult a legal authority.

1.2.3.2 Managing Rights in the Digital Environment

Rights associated with intellectual property are not defined relative to format or genre. However, in the digital environment, the scope of the playing field is changed. There is much broader access potential and a much richer technical environment for re-use and re-purposing of content, such as in data-driven research. Simultaneously, the global political and economic environment has encouraged increased participation in scientific research and the chemical enterprise. There are vastly more scientific manuscripts produced than the expanding journal options can absorb, and the peer-review system is swamped. There is a rapidly increasing readership and increasing pressure to publish manuscripts directly online to increase speed and availability. Emerging data-driven approaches to research and development demand greater technical treatment and access to content.

Players on the field have responded to these drivers accordingly by intensifying their approaches with overall compounding effects on the flow of information. Higher potential for global-reaching commercial value coupled with perceived higher competitive threat spurs content owners to tighten rights management measures. In the absence of acceptable standard practice, such measures have tapped into other legal tools such as contract law, and technically based restrictions on access and use, currently enforced through the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DCMA). Typically, these restrictions limit use far more than with analog information sources. The most visible restriction to researchers is the amount that can be downloaded from various information sources, including database result sets, journal articles, and book chapters. Printing, saving, filing in reference management tools, or forwarding to colleagues may all be restricted or disallowed altogether.

There are other subtler, but no less critical impacts on long-term access and use as specifications of ownership and hosting of the scholarly literature are shifting. Most electronic scholarly journal content is made available to users through license rather than sale as print subscriptions had been. Libraries have negotiated new terms for access in perpetuity to fulfill their mission to make sure that articles are available in the long term. Since publishers remain the content owners, they, rather than libraries, are now also responsible for archiving. Third-party services are emerging to support the ongoing technical integrity of electronic information.

The online environment has increased the potential for the sharing of work; however, it is still important to the integrity of a work to manage the rights of re-use and provenance even if the content is openly available for the initial use of reading. Creative Commons is a non-profit organization developing a new approach to managing and communicating terms of copyright of work in the digital space. The underlying principle is that the work will be openly available for public dissemination and use with a variety of conditions specified by the owners. Several licenses are available with various combinations of specifications for attribution, sharing and commercial purposes. Creative Commons licensing is based on copyright and provides the legal code to uphold it. Additionally the licenses include versions of the terms expressed for owners and users not legally trained and also in machine-readable form to communicate and functionally enable rights and permissions in the digital context; see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ for more information. As the global legal climate surrounding intellectual property establishes itself in the digital environment, content authors, owners, and users juggle a complicated information landscape.

1.2.3.3 Ethics

Authors have certain ethical obligations to the scientific enterprise. Publishing contracts will often include requirements that the work submitted presents original research, an accurate account of the research performed, and an objective discussion of its significance. They further stipulate that all coauthors must be aware of the submission, that the authors submit their work to only one journal at a time, and that they disclose the submission history of the manuscript. 11   Original work should not plagiarize text or figures from other published works, even if prepared by the same authors. The tendency towards self-plagiarism is particularly problematic as researchers build on their own previous work, but each newly published work should have enough novelty to stand as a separate and distinct contribution. Connections to previous work, by the authors or others, should be fully attributed and referenced. Permissions for more extensive use of previous content, such as figures in a review article should be sought from the copyright owner, as discussed above. Such practices constitute a code of conduct and personal responsibility that is core to the definition and ongoing integrity of chemistry research. For further reading on best practices for scientists, see “On Being a Scientist”, freely available from the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. 12  

1.2.3.4 Patenting

Patenting is another approach to intellectual property that focuses on the design of technology, human-invented approaches to accomplishing a specified task. This type of intellectual protection involves a different form of documentation, and the resulting patent literature constitutes the primary contribution of the chemical industry. Rights owners are trading public disclosure of their approach for a limited period of exclusivity to develop any commercial potential. Patents allow the public to benefit in the longer term through healthy competition and additional development, while still supporting the pursuit of commercial viability by the originator. Otherwise, owners of commercial processes might keep successful technologies secret indefinitely. A granted patent supports this right for the first party to file, even if others come up with similar ideas independently, as long as the invention is novel. The United States also requires that the invention have utility and offer a non-obvious change to existing technology. Assignees have twenty years to develop and market the technology without competition should they pursue it.

The chemical syntheses and refinement processes developed in industry are patentable, which makes the window of exclusivity a highly valuable right in the commercial sector. As a result, patents are carefully construed to cover a broad a range of potential approaches within each technology to give companies flexibility and multiple stepping-stones to pursue. Technologies developed within the scope of academic research are also patentable, and universities will often contract with commercial partners to scale and market promising technologies. A few technologies out of millions of patents prove to be of high market value, and the owning companies will fiercely defend their exclusive advantage. While development rights are exclusive, the disclosed design is public information, and, although the patent is written in such a way as to obfuscate the critical pieces as much as possible, it can still be very useful for indicating the direction of proprietary research in a given area, as well as providing other important chemical information, such as characterization properties. As a result, patents are a rich body of chemical literature publically available to every research chemist and worthy of serious consideration; approaches to using patent literature are more fully discussed in a later chapter of this book. For further reading on patenting relevant to chemistry, see the handbook “What Every Chemist Should Know About Patents”, available from the American Chemical Society. 13  

1.2.4.1 Primary Literature

The first time an observation or idea appears in a public medium constitutes first disclosure and is categorized as primary literature. This is the important point for discovery and the critical point at which an idea has enough scientific potential behind it to become part of the development of a scientific discipline: “if your research does not generate papers, it might just as well not have been done”. 14   The primary literature represents the state of a research area and will supply you with information on methods and protocols. In chemistry, many primary publications appear in the form of research articles, clustered in journals ranging from general or multidisciplinary to specialized by sub-discipline, methodology, or nationality. Patents, conference papers, and technical reports also constitute a significant portion of the primary literature globally across the chemistry sub-disciplines. The authors, editors, and reviewers of the various primary resources have reviewed the information and deemed it publishable, but it remains to the researcher to locate it and decide if it is relevant to his or her own work.

1.2.4.2 Secondary Literature

Over one million primary publications are indexed by the Chemical Abstracts Service each year in chemistry and its related fields. 15   It is not possible to follow the developments or even find relevant information in any one area without additional organizational tools. Publications that parse, abstract, index, or otherwise break down and group the information and ideas appearing in the primary literature are categorized as secondary literature. There are two general types of secondary literature, depending on the content and purpose. Abstracting and indexing services facilitate research of ideas by organizing the bibliographic information of the primary literature. These tools tend to be large-scale resources, covering a broad range of primary sources to facilitate multidisciplinary and comprehensive research. Databases extract and aggregate specific information from the primary literature to create high-value collections of experimental, analytical, or preparative information. These collections tend to be fairly specialized by type of information or research methodology.

Opportunities for searching in an area of interest simultaneously across multiple information sources and types are becoming more prominent in the web-enabled, digital information environment. Chemical Abstracts Service is one of the most prominent secondary literature providers, specializing in thorough coverage and indexing of the chemistry literature through a variety of systems, including SciFinder and STN (Science & Technology Network). SciFinder links different types of bibliographic, characterization, and preparative information from within the primary literature to enhance the research process from idea to experimental design. Successful use of the secondary literature tools will contribute to your knowledge of a research area. Developers of these tools carefully manage the inclusion and organization of primary literature sources based on scope and perceived quality, but no additional value-based judgment is offered beyond this. The intellectual process of identifying what specific articles and information is relevant information remains to the researcher.

1.2.4.3 Tertiary Literature

Even with the vast number of primary publications in the chemistry-related disciplines and the wide variety of secondary tools available to navigate them, a scientist may still seek additional input to ascertain the gestalt of the research in an area before trying to search it directly. Such scenarios could include a scientist pushing into an unfamiliar research area, a lab group changing its approach to an experimental methodology, or a chemistry graduate student learning to practice research. There are several types of literature in chemistry designed to give an overview of a research area, methodology or practice, these resources are referred to as tertiary literature. Review articles and chapter-books give an overview of a research field at a given time. They are written by experts in the field, long-time practicing scientists, and can cover the development of the primary theories, branches into other fields, applications in industry, primary educational models, future directions with high research potential, and even research lines that didn’t work out. Treatises and handbooks meticulously review the developments of specific research methodologies or experimental best practices in various areas of chemistry, such as organic synthesis. Graduate-level texts, encyclopedias and other primers, such as this book, are another type of tertiary literature designed to introduce an inexperienced researcher to a particular field. Tertiary literature sources offer expert value-based judgments of the published literature and assessment of data in the research area under consideration. It is important to keep in mind that these sources are out of date as soon as they are written in terms of the state of the science in any given area; they are a great starting point to a new area of research but not a robust finishing point for preparing your own experiments and publications.

Each published article has potential in the scientific enterprise, waiting to be found and read by another scientist who sees its potential and can build on it. A key aspect of this path to successful contribution is how other scientists who would be interested in the content of an article happen upon it. An early part of the discovery process for many researchers is the groupings of articles that make up issues of journals that are read regularly. There are many other points of connectivity; the units of the primary literature and the research experiments, observations and conclusions that they represent do not exist in isolation within their host journals. Research articles and patents build on previous reportings, and, in turn, influence those who subsequently read them; the scientific ideas in each article are linked to other published articles. There are many different ways that individual scientists approach their literature practice and process of finding new articles of relevance to their current research projects. However, they are all based on some kind of link from one article to another, one scientist to another, or one idea to another, with each subsequent link related to the former in some way.

For a specific research project, an idea may start with one article read by a scientist. The scientist may then read some of the article's references for better background, then find papers that cite the starting article to see how others have built on it, then examine articles that cite the same references as the original article to see how others have built upon the earlier research, and so on. Much like a pearl that builds up in layers upon the initial stimulation of a grain of sand, this technique of building up a cadre of articles and research awareness through following links is referred to as “pearl growing”, or “the Iterative Approach to literature searching.” 16   Common link paths highlighted by the discovery services in the secondary literature include journals, publishers, authors, institutions, sub-discipline, methodology, type of application, compounds, and physical properties, as well as both references and citations. It is the prerogative of the researcher to navigate the various paths to find the best literature for their particular purpose. The networked online environment is having a profound impact on the ability of researchers to move along these links to aid discovery of information and build knowledge bases. The majority of chemical information resources are available online. As more standards emerge and develop for encoding text and other information to appear on the Web, more links are being activated between common information elements across resources that go well beyond the traditional journal, author, and references.

Chemical information is in a unique position in terms of development potential in the online environment, influenced by a variety of factors that complicate the realization of this potential. The chemistry field is actually one of the earlier pioneers of online representation of information, with machine-readable encoding systems for chemical compounds dating back to the line notation systems of the late 1940s. Chemical information is also exceedingly complex and nuanced in what it represents; structural characterization of compounds, chemical and physical properties of compounds, preparation and purification methodologies, and analytical techniques are all considered by chemical scientists in their research. This intensity around information has been accompanied by elaborate representation schema for various aspects of the information since the heyday of alchemy. In 1919, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry was formed to more systematically consider and review chemical information representation and apply standardization in some critical areas internationally, including chemical compound notation for both human and machine reading purposes. 17   The latest example of efforts in this area is the IUPAC International Chemical Identifier (InChI), which provides interoperable chemical structure encoding between different publishers and chemical information systems. 18  

Robust and standardized machine-readable encoding of information has also enabled the emergence of new and powerful data-driven approaches to research. Informatics, as this type of science is generally called, is touching on many fields, including chemistry. Research processes that were previously managed by the researcher, such as data collection and management, are increasingly automated, and ultimately the computer can activate a variety of links among and between data sets to indicate patterns of potential interest. It is still up to the human researcher to make some determination of the value and to pursue further research of any of these patterns.

As these computer systems become increasingly sophisticated, they are beginning to perform more of the valuation themselves, “learning” from patterns of previously assigned values and performing self-assessment based on error rate analysis. This area, in which the computer applies value-based analysis to research input, is referred to as semantic processing. This approach is not only being applied to numeric or other non-textual research data, but to the linking patterns used by scientists when searching the literature, as well as the early stages of analysis of text in the primary literature and, by extension, a kind of analysis of the intellectual contribution of individual scientists. This sounds very much like the literature research process for individual humans that we have been discussing throughout this chapter. What could be lost with the automation of more processes formerly performed by educated chemists, and what more could those researchers do beyond what is possible now with more time freed from automated tasks? As more data, including the direct intellectual contribution of researchers, is presented online and linked to other information, pattern recognition and evaluation is enabled and the impact of these considerations will become increasing prominent. There certainly are implications regarding productivity value and re-use of material considered to be intellectual property and therefore protected by copyright or patent law. There may also be implications for what is considered by the chemistry community to be acceptable standards of practice when balancing machine and human analysis and valuation to further the research enterprise.

Amidst the complexities and complications of the chemical information landscape, libraries focus primarily on enabling use of scholarly materials. An ideal goal for searching the literature for researchers and information providers to strive for might be 90% unassisted use 24/7 anywhere, complemented by detailed support the remaining 10% of the time. Information providers are in the business to consider highly dis-intermediated experiences for researchers to enable the most efficient approach within a researcher's individual process and point of need. Both content and access are key components of a dis-intermediated research process, through combination of clearly defined scope of content, expert curation, value added content analysis, and automated organizational structure. Expert curation is the highest value added to most chemistry resources, involving scientists and other field experts to determine what content to include and highlight, what links to include and highlight and how to put these together to clarify the opportunities and potential indicators for researchers.

Researchers’ needs not covered by 90% solutions require expert assistance. These needs should not be underestimated; they could translate to “aha moments” for researchers, critical learning opportunities for students, or indicators of emerging areas of chemistry research and potential in the information landscape. The questions you are asking may be cutting edge and unique enough to not be represented in standard ways in searching tools. In a well-meant effort to maximize the opportunities of the online environment, database and information providers often try to make tools more intuitive. In reality, expert search functions are often diminished, resulting in more difficulty finding relevant information. If you have spent over 20minutes in fruitless searching, this is not good use of your time; ask for help. There are experts who search for information for a living; they often have access to better tools and have invested time to develop better work-arounds; they can save you a lot of time.

This volume is authored by chemistry-focused librarians across the United States and Canada who perceive a need to more broadly support graduate students and researchers in chemistry with their literature use. In addition to expertise in the literature landscape of chemistry, librarians have access to networks of other experts, and participate in a variety of services and activities to further broaden both the support and expertise they can provide. They curate specialized finding tools in chemistry, such as properties finders and virtual shelf browsers; offer training, guides, and feedback opportunities with specific resources and search techniques; and actively participate in scientific societies and liaise with publishers and other professional development programs for chemists. All of this expertise is only as good as it is useful for chemists; we welcome the opportunity to assist your literature research in a variety of ways. Another useful volume addressing the broad issues of publication is the ACS Style Guide, 3 rd edition published in 2006 by the American Chemical Society. 19  

The balance of supporting researchers in a robust searching process through independent options coupled with specified assistance represents a moving target as the research landscape continuously changes. Iterative development is critical for information providers to aim for a successful highly dis-intermediated environment. Follow-up analysis of assisted experiences is needed to assess what is indicated about gaps in dis-intermediated solutions or potential new service areas. Such are the requirements of robust information systems and services and chemistry information providers tend to invest significant resources into ensuring robust content, organization, support, and other added value. As the digital markup of chemical information improves, more direct engagement is possible with non-tactile literature and libraries transition support of print-based research processes to online-based research processes.

A literature search is a significant part of the overall research process. It is up to you to leverage the structure of the literature, discovery tools, pearl growing, valuation, and good tracking skills to tap its potential. If you do not take the time and care to plan your process up front, you will quickly be swamped by the vastness of the literature, and likely miss key findings or painstakingly recreate experimental methods previously published. Please remember Frank Westheimer's aphorism, “Why spend a day in the library when you can learn the same thing by working in the laboratory for a month?” 20  

When searching through the literature, the information you have in hand – previous research, active authors, chemical structural information – can serve as starting and linking points. Since your search of the literature may be for background information, a comprehensive sweep of previously characterized compounds of interest, a specific set of physical properties, or a particular synthesis route, what you already know will help identify which information resources are best suited to help. The remainder of this book provides some description of the more commonly used chemical information resources designed to help the researcher determine which to use and how best to get started for various needs.

Given the complex nature of chemical compound characterization and the breadth of research fields that touch on chemistry, some types of chemical information are more complicated and require advanced searching methodologies. Good starting places and best practices for more specialized searching are detailed in the later chapters of this book. This is not a comprehensive sweep of all potential approaches to searching in chemistry, so as you specialize in your area of research, becoming thoroughly competent in the relevant advanced searching methodologies will be critical for a robust research program.

Reviewing and assessing the results requires an understanding of what additional relevant information may be available, evaluating new search leads, such as other associated compounds, and recognizing better index terms. Reviewing specific result records will indicate what can be expected in that information resource, and gives a sense of how structural, reaction or property information is encoded. To quote from the conclusion of the physical properties chapter: “important skills for a searcher are persistence, creativity, and a sense of what avenues are most likely to be successful and which ones are unproductive… not unlike the qualities of a good detective”. 21  

So what are some practical tips for mastering your work with the chemistry literature? At Cornell University, we have created a guide titled, “7 Ways to Be a More Efficient Chemist” that boils down several key activities you can set up right away to help yourself in the literature aspects of your research ( http://guides.library.cornell.edu/7chemistry , original guide by Kirsten Hensley, 2008). The guide points to specific resources at Cornell University, but the principles apply anywhere for any chemist at any stage of research.

1.3.2.1 Streamline Your Connections to the Literature Resources You Use Regularly So You Can Access Them Anywhere, Any Time, and from Any Device

Most research libraries have a proxy system in place for connecting to resources when you are off-campus; many also provide bookmarklets or apps for re-loading web pages with your institutional authentication so you can log in from anywhere. Set up bookmarks in your web browser of choice, or use a webroot or some other system with your most frequently and regularly used resources, using the links provided by your library, which should include the proxy authentication. Apps covering a variety of literature resources and searching options are also increasingly available if working on smaller mobile devices fits into your work style.

1.3.2.2 Organize the Hundreds of Articles and References You Collect in Your Literature Research

Many citation management programs are available with various organizational features and costs ranging from free to reasonable educational discounts. You can group references by topic, project or specific question you are researching. Most will import PDF files and some will pull out the bibliographic information for you so you can organize the papers. Some allow for collaborative work. Most literature databases will export references in formats directly importable to these programs; some programs can even be used to search other content or linked into directly.

1.3.2.3 Regularly Monitor the Contents of the Top Journals in Chemistry and Your Specific Sub-discipline Once You Start Actively Researching

Most scientific journals provide email or RSS feed alerts of issue content for free. JournalTOCs ( http://www.journaltocs.ac.uk/ ) collects thousands of feed links to scholarly journal tables of contents, and you can create groups of journals to monitor from this free service. If you are not familiar with the journals in a particular sub-discipline, you can get an initial list to start by exploring the Journal Citation Reports ISI Impact Factor rankings if your institution subscribes to this assessment tool. These rankings are based on numbers of citations to a journal relative to the number of articles published within a fixed time-frame, roughly indicating how much impact the research published therein is having on informing further research in a given area. Review journals tend to show the highest impact with this measure, as they are broad in scope and can be particularly helpful for reference when new to a research area.

1.3.2.4 Set up Alerts in the Literature Databases to Monitor New Research by Topic

This technique will cut across journals and other literature sources and allow you to zero in on specific methodologies or compounds of interest on a more specific level. Most databases, such as SciFinder, Web of Science, MEDLINE, etc. , offer alerts based on your searches of interest. You can also save searches and come back to them to build up a critical mass of literature in an area to export to your citation management program.

1.3.2.5 Read Books and Review Articles for Background Material

You will be expected to build up knowledge of various areas pretty quickly as you begin more research. These could be the state of current research areas, chemical reaction or other experimental methodologies, or potential for application. Treatises and review journals as mentioned above are available that cover all these types of information, as well as periodic review articles in primary journals for more specific or timely topics.

1.3.2.6 Be Familiar with the Options for Acquiring the Full Text of Articles through Your Library or Information Center

Most research libraries have fairly robust collections of electronic journals that will be directly available to you or will provide document delivery for needed articles. Finding these links among thousands of others will vary by local institution. No research library has direct access to all published literature, digital or hard copy, but there are a number of collaborative systems that research libraries use to make content available among institutions. Most libraries participate in some kind of inter-library loaning system for hard copy, photocopies, and increasingly for electronic content as well. Systems for article sharing tend to be national or international, many regional approaches also exist for books, including service from joint storage facilities.

1.3.2.7 Ask for Help from Librarians with All of the above Tasks and More

If we don’t know specifically how, we will find the right assistance for you. This is the top priority and core responsibility of the public services librarians in any library. Most research libraries will have librarians who specialize their service in key disciplines, including chemistry, which tends to be a literature-heavy discipline.

1.3.2.8 Bonus: Be Aware of Specialized Electronic Reference Resources for Reaction Specifications, Physical Properties, and other Scientific Data

More and more of the data supporting chemistry research are becoming available in online venues. The traditional reference collections in research libraries supporting chemistry tend to be expansive and well used but cumbersome and probably not as well discovered as they could be for supporting experimental and technical work. As these resources become more available online and libraries are able to support them, it can have a positive impact on your workflow.

Overall, remember that the library is intended to support your literature research, in accessing content, improving your searches, and helping you become a more efficient and better prepared chemist.

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How to find the literature value (known value) of theoretical yield and percentage yield of adipic acid?

In a given lab practical for the oxidation of cyclohexene to adipic acid using KMnO 4 , we have been tasked with finding the literature value or the known value of the theoretical yield and percentage yield of the adipic acid. As for the experimental value, 1.24 mL of cyclohexene was used, and the amount of adipic acid yielded after the experiment was 1.4g, therefore having a theoretical yield of 2.207 g and a percentage yield of 63%. Is there a way I can find the literature value (either known or by calculation from known values) of the theoretical yield and percentage yield of Adipic Acid?

1 Expert Answer

Bharat K. answered • 10/02/23

EXPERIENCE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER

To find the literature value of the theoretical yield and percentage yield of adipic acid, you can follow these steps:

1. Conduct a literature search: Start by conducting a literature search using academic databases, scientific journals, or chemical databases. Look for studies or articles that specifically mention the synthesis or production of adipic acid. Pay attention to the experimental procedures and the reported yields.

2. Calculate the theoretical yield: Once you find a reliable source that provides the experimental procedure and the yield of adipic acid, you can calculate the theoretical yield. The theoretical yield is the maximum possible amount of product that can be obtained from a given amount of starting material, assuming complete conversion and perfect reaction conditions. You can use the balanced chemical equation for the synthesis of adipic acid to calculate the amount of adipic acid that should be produced.

3. Calculate the percentage yield: To calculate the percentage yield, you need the experimental yield (the actual amount of adipic acid obtained in your own experiment) and the theoretical yield. The percentage yield is calculated using the formula: (experimental yield / theoretical yield) x 100%.

Keep in mind that the literature values may vary depending on the specific experimental conditions, starting materials, and reaction methods used in different studies. Therefore, it is important to consult multiple reliable sources to obtain a range of literature values for the theoretical yield and percentage yield of adipic acid.

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Chemistry: Chemical Literature

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  • SciFinderN This link opens in a new window Provides access to the following databases: Chemical Abstracts--Chemical literature (journals, patents, books, etc.; 1907 - present); Registry File--Chemical compound information (structure, molecular weight, spectral information, etc.); Medline--Medical literature (journals, books, conferences, etc.; 1958 - present); CASREACT--Information on chemical reactions (1985 - present); CHEMCATS--Chemical sources (i.e., supplier information); CHEMLIST--Regulatory information (1979 - present).

The following resources include general and disciplinary databases that contain chemical literature.

  • Web of Science (WOS) This link opens in a new window Includes several citation indices covering sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities. Search by a specific index, or across all indices. Citations to articles in more than 8,000 major research journals. Also permits cited reference searching (searching for articles that cite a particular author or work).
  • Engineering Village This link opens in a new window Database platform that links to materials in physics, engineering and related fields. Provides access to the databases Compendex, GEOBASE, and Knovel which can be searched separately or together. NOTE: For the FindIt button to work, you must allow the computer to access pop-ups when asked. Users accessing this title should use the GW VPN. Also IE 8 is no longer supported for this database.
  • PubMed This link opens in a new window Public access version of the Medline database. Includes life and health sciences articles including clinical, basic sciences, and public health information. Incorporates Himmelfarb Library's customized search filters for EBM/Clinical Reviews, EBM/Clinical Trials, and Reviews. Includes links to related genetic, chemical and taxonomic information. Produced by the U.S. National Library of Medicine.

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  • Fieser and Fiesers Reagents for Organic Synthesis This link opens in a new window This resource features an A to Z listing of all reagents cited in synthetic literature with concise descriptions and illustrations of chemical reactions. All information about a particular reagent is collected in one single article. Entries abstract the most important information on commonly used and new reagents, including preparation, uses, sources of supply, critical comments, references and more.
  • Organic Syntheses Reviews for organic synthetic methods. Browse by volume or search across the database (name, structure, etc.). Includes procedures and literature references.
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Exploring the Chemical Literature

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The  scientific literature  is the collective body of knowledge that has been published since the beginning of modern scientific practice in the mid-17th century. The literature is truly vast, containing hundreds of millions of documents in all kinds of formats and languages, on every topic imaginable.  The literature's growth is exponential - one study estimates it  doubles in size every nine years - meaning that the vast majority of articles out there have appeared in just the last few decades. 

The literature is both produced and consumed by scientists who use it to inform their own research, which is then in turn reported for others to use. This is called the  Research-Publication Cycle , an endless loop of discovery and learning (moving counterclockwise in this diagram) and knowledge dissemination (moving clockwise).

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  • Primary Literature :  This is where NEW research is reported.  It includes preprints (articles submitted but not yet peer-reviewed); rapid communications (often called letters or reports); peer-reviewed full articles in journals; papers presented at conference and symposia; patents; and academic theses (which describe a graduate student's long-term research project, some of which may already have appeared as journal articles).
  • Secondary Literature :  No new results are reported, but rather a synthesis and assessment of recent research on a particular topic.  This can be review articles in journals or review series, or as chapters in an edited book, or a full-length monograph.
  • Tertiary Literature :  Some of the knowledge reported in the primary literature may eventually make its way into publications such as encyclopedias, handbooks, and the like.  It also includes academic textbooks.

Articles in scientific journals are written by and for experts, not for beginning students or the general public. Since the authors assume their readers have some advanced knowledge on the subject, reading and understanding these articles can be a bit of a challenge at first when you don't have that expertise. But with a little practice you'll soon learn how to intelligently scan an article and extract the information you need. You don't necessarily have to read it start to finish, and you don't need to understand every little detail. Experienced scientists skip around:  they might scan the Experimental and Results sections first, and if those are interesting move on to the conclusions and introduction. 

For more tips check out this guide from the Royal Society of Chemistry:   How to Read a Journal Article

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Relevant Chemistry Education pp 101–118 Cite as

The Role of Values in Chemistry Education

  • Deborah Corrigan 3 ,
  • Rebecca Cooper 4 &
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From this definition, Halstead highlights the more enduring and basic nature of values in comparison to beliefs, a form of knowledge that is personally viable for meeting personal goals (Tobin, Tippins, & Gallard, 1994), such as ‘I trust what you say’, or attitudes, an evaluative response to an object (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993), such as ‘I do not like airplanes’.

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Allchin, D. (1998). Values in science and science education. In B. Fraser &. K. Tobin (Eds.), International handbook of science education (pp. 1083-1092). Dordrecht: Kluwer.

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Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes . Fort Worth: Ted Buchholz.

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Tobin, K., Tippins, D. J., & Gallard, A. J. (1994). Research on instructional strategies for teaching science. In D. L. Gabel (Ed.), Handbook of research on science teaching and learning (pp. 45-93). New York: NSTA.

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Deborah Corrigan

Rebecca Cooper

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Department of Science Teaching, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel

Avi Hofstein

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Corrigan, D., Cooper, R., Keast, S. (2015). The Role of Values in Chemistry Education. In: Eilks, I., Hofstein, A. (eds) Relevant Chemistry Education. SensePublishers, Rotterdam. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6300-175-5_6

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Where can I find literature values for chemistry?

  • Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry (BJOC)
  • ChemBioFinder.
  • ChemistryCentral – Open access to Chemistry.
  • E Print Network.
  • Energy Citations Database.
  • Energy PolySearch Engine.

How do you identify literature in chemistry?

  • Google Scholar. bibliographic data associated with related articles.
  • Scirus. Search engine that fetches only scientific websites.
  • Commercial Databases.

What are literature values in chemistry?

A literature value is a constant or known, extensively verified value that can be used in experimental or theoretical calculations.

What does it mean by literature value?

Literary value does not include the values expressed or implied in a text but refers specifically to how one can attribute worth to a text in terms of its value to ‘civilisation’, a culture, a society, or a particular group of people.

What is the literature value for the density of water?

Actually, the exact density of water is not really 1 g/ml, but rather a bit less (very, very little less), at 0.9998395 g/ml at 4.0° Celsius (39.2° Fahrenheit). The rounded value of 1 g/ml is what you’ll most often see, though.

Where can I find literature melting point?

Identification. As a compound’s melting point is a physical constant, it can be used to support the identity of an unknown solid. The melting point can be looked up in a reference book (this value would then be called the “literature melting point”), and compared to the experimental melting point.

How do you write a literature survey in chemistry?

How does literature review look like?

The literature review is a written overview of major writings and other sources on a selected topic. Sources covered in the review may include scholarly journal articles, books, government reports, Web sites, etc. The literature review provides a description, summary and evaluation of each source.

What is the experimental value in chemistry?

The experimental value of a measurement is the value that is measured during the experiment. Suppose that in your experiment, you determine an experimental value for the aluminum density to be 2.42g/cm3. The error of an experiment is the difference between the experimental and accepted values.

What is the experimental value for KSP CA Oh 2?

The tabulated Ksp for Ca(OH)2 is 6.5 x10-6 at 25°C.

How do you value literature?

Literature has moral value if reading it gives occasion to learn a lesson. If a story or poem TEACHES us how to live, or attempts to teach us, then it has a moral dimension. We have to be careful, I think, not to hold moral value as the most important one.

What are the 3 types of values?

  • Character Values. Character values are the universal values that you need to exist as a good human being.
  • Work Values.
  • Personal Values.

Why do we need to study values of literature?

For starters, studying literature can provide perspective. Literature allows us to view issues through various prisms—historical, psychological, etc. —that we would otherwise not have access to. The personal intellectual, philosophical and even spiritual ramifications of this should be clear enough.

How do you find theoretical density of water?

Just like a solid, the density of a liquid equals the mass of the liquid divided by its volume; D = m/v. The density of water is 1 gram per cubic centimeter.

What is the value of density in pure water or fresh water?

Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. The density of water is most given as 1 g/cm3, but below is the density of water with different units.

What is the value for density of water in g mL at 20 degrees Celsius?

UKAS ISO/IEC17025 and ISO Guide 34 certified, density: 0.9982 g/mL at 20 °C, density: 0.9970 g/mL at 25 °C.

What does it mean if melting point is lower than literature value?

Based on the melting point obtained, you can determine if any impurities exist in your sample. If your melting point is much lower and a wider range than the literature value, impurities are present in your sample. These can be due to experimental errors that occurred within your experiment.

What does literature of boiling point mean?

An experimental boiling point is often compared to the literature boiling point, which are typically reported for 1 atmosphere of pressure. If a boiling point is determined at any pressure significantly different than 1 atmosphere, the pressure should be corrected.

What is the literature melting point of benzoic acid?

Benzoic acid melting point standard, 121-123 °C is useful as a melting point calibration standard while defining the purity of pharmaceutical chemicals.

How do you do a literature search?

  • Develop a research question in a specific subject area.
  • Make a list of relevant databases and texts you will search.
  • Make a list of relevant keywords and phrases.
  • Start searching and make notes from each database to keep track of your search.

How do you explain a literature survey in a presentation?

  • Introduce the topic.
  • Establish the significance of the study.
  • Provide an overview of the relevant literature.
  • Establish a context for the study using the literature.
  • Identify knowledge gaps.
  • Illustrate how the study will advance knowledge on the topic.

How do you write a literature review example?

  • Narrow your topic and select papers accordingly.
  • Search for literature.
  • Read the selected articles thoroughly and evaluate them.
  • Organize the selected papers by looking for patterns and by developing subtopics.
  • Develop a thesis or purpose statement.
  • Write the paper.
  • Review your work.

What are the 3 parts of literature review?

Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at least three basic elements: an introduction or background information section; the body of the review containing the discussion of sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations section to end the paper.

What are the three types of literature reviews?

Over the years, numerous types of literature reviews have emerged, but the four main types are traditional or narrative, systematic, meta-analysis and meta-synthesis.

How do you summarize a literature review?

  • Tip 1: provide detailed information about frameworks and methods.
  • Tip 2: include strengths and limitations for each article.
  • Tip 3: write conceptual contribution of each reviewed article.
  • Tip 4: compose potential themes from each article during summary writing.

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Ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy

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While interaction with infrared light causes molecules to undergo vibrational transitions, the shorter wavelength, higher energy radiation in the UV (200-400 nm) and visible (400-700 nm) range of the electromagnetic spectrum causes many organic molecules to undergo electronic transitions . What this means is that when the energy from UV or visible light is absorbed by a molecule, one of its electrons jumps from a lower energy to a higher energy molecular orbital.

Electronic transitions

Let’s take as our first example the simple case of molecular hydrogen, H 2 . As you may recall from section 2.1A, the molecular orbital picture for the hydrogen molecule consists of one bonding σ MO, and a higher energy antibonding σ * MO. When the molecule is in the ground state, both electrons are paired in the lower-energy bonding orbital – this is the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO). The antibonding σ * orbital, in turn, is the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO).

image024.png

If the molecule is exposed to light of a wavelength with energy equal to Δ E, the HOMO-LUMO energy gap, this wavelength will be absorbed and the energy used to bump one of the electrons from the HOMO to the LUMO – in other words, from the σ to the σ * orbital. This is referred to as a σ - σ * transition . Δ E for this electronic transition is 258 kcal/mol, corresponding to light with a wavelength of 111 nm.

When a double-bonded molecule such as ethene (common name ethylene) absorbs light, it undergoes a π - π * transition. Because π - π * energy gaps are narrower than σ - σ * gaps, ethene absorbs light at 165 nm - a longer wavelength than molecular hydrogen.

image026.png

The electronic transitions of both molecular hydrogen and ethene are too energetic to be accurately recorded by standard UV spectrophotometers, which generally have a range of 220 – 700 nm. Where UV-vis spectroscopy becomes useful to most organic and biological chemists is in the study of molecules with conjugated pi systems. In these groups, the energy gap for π - π * transitions is smaller than for isolated double bonds, and thus the wavelength absorbed is longer. Molecules or parts of molecules that absorb light strongly in the UV-vis region are called chromophores .

Let’s revisit the MO picture for 1,3-butadiene, the simplest conjugated system . Recall that we can draw a diagram showing the four pi MO’s that result from combining the four 2p z atomic orbitals. The lower two orbitals are bonding, while the upper two are antibonding.

image028.png

Comparing this MO picture to that of ethene, our isolated pi-bond example, we see that the HOMO-LUMO energy gap is indeed smaller for the conjugated system. 1,3-butadiene absorbs UV light with a wavelength of 217 nm.

As conjugated pi systems become larger, the energy gap for a π - π * transition becomes increasingly narrow, and the wavelength of light absorbed correspondingly becomes longer. The absorbance due to the π - π * transition in 1,3,5-hexatriene, for example, occurs at 258 nm, corresponding to a Δ E of 111 kcal/mol.

image030.png

In molecules with extended pi systems, the HOMO-LUMO energy gap becomes so small that absorption occurs in the visible rather then the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Beta-carotene, with its system of 11 conjugated double bonds, absorbs light with wavelengths in the blue region of the visible spectrum while allowing other visible wavelengths – mainly those in the red-yellow region - to be transmitted. This is why carrots are orange.

image032.png

The conjugated pi system in 4-methyl-3-penten-2-one gives rise to a strong UV absorbance at 236 nm due to a π - π * transition. However, this molecule also absorbs at 314 nm. This second absorbance is due to the transition of a non-bonding (lone pair) electron on the oxygen up to a π * antibonding MO:

image034.png

This is referred to as an n - π * transition . The nonbonding (n) MO’s are higher in energy than the highest bonding p orbitals, so the energy gap for an n - π * transition is smaller that that of a π - π * transition – and thus the n - π * peak is at a longer wavelength. In general, n - π * transitions are weaker (less light absorbed) than those due to π - π * transitions.

Express A = 1.0 in terms of percent transmittance (%T, the unit usually used in IR spectroscopy (and sometimes in UV-vis as well).

Here is the absorbance spectrum of the common food coloring Red #3:

image040.png

Here, we see that the extended system of conjugated pi bonds causes the molecule to absorb light in the visible range. Because the λ max of 524 nm falls within the green region of the spectrum, the compound appears red to our eyes.

Now, take a look at the spectrum of another food coloring, Blue #1:

image042.png

Here, maximum absorbance is at 630 nm, in the orange range of the visible spectrum, and the compound appears blue.

Applications of UV spectroscopy in organic and biological chemistry

UV-vis spectroscopy has many different applications in organic and biological chemistry. One of the most basic of these applications is the use of the Beer - Lambert Law to determine the concentration of a chromophore. You most likely have performed a Beer – Lambert experiment in a previous chemistry lab. The law is simply an application of the observation that, within certain ranges, the absorbance of a chromophore at a given wavelength varies in a linear fashion with its concentration: the higher the concentration of the molecule, the greater its absorbance. If we divide the observed value of A at λ max by the concentration of the sample ( c , in mol/L), we obtain the molar absorptivity , or extinction coefficient ( ε ), which is a characteristic value for a given compound.

ε = A/ c

The absorbance will also depend, of course, on the path length - in other words, the distance that the beam of light travels though the sample. In most cases, sample holders are designed so that the path length is equal to 1 cm, so the units for molar absorptivity are mol * L - 1 cm -1 . If we look up the value of e for our compound at λ max , and we measure absorbance at this wavelength, we can easily calculate the concentration of our sample. As an example, for NAD + the literature value of ε at 260 nm is 18,000 mol * L - 1 cm -1 . In our NAD + spectrum we observed A 260 = 1.0, so using equation 4.4 and solving for concentration we find that our sample is 5.6 x 10 -5 M.

The literature value of ε for 1,3-pentadiene in hexane is 26,000 mol * L - 1 cm -1 at its maximum absorbance at 224 nm. You prepare a sample and take a UV spectrum, finding that A 224 = 0.850. What is the concentration of your sample?

The bases of DNA and RNA are good chromophores:

image044.png

Biochemists and molecular biologists often determine the concentration of a DNA sample by assuming an average value of ε = 0.020 ng -1 ×mL for double-stranded DNA at its λ max of 260 nm (notice that concentration in this application is expressed in mass/volume rather than molarity: ng/mL is often a convenient unit for DNA concentration when doing molecular biology).

50 mL of an aqueous sample of double stranded DNA is dissolved in 950 mL of water. This diluted solution has a maximal absorbance of 0.326 at 260 nm. What is the concentration of the original (more concentrated) DNA sample, expressed in mg/mL?

Template:ExampleEnd

Because the extinction coefficient of double stranded DNA is slightly lower than that of single stranded DNA, we can use UV spectroscopy to monitor a process known as DNA melting. If a short stretch of double stranded DNA is gradually heated up, it will begin to ‘melt’, or break apart, as the temperature increases (recall that two strands of DNA are held together by a specific pattern of hydrogen bonds formed by ‘base-pairing’).

image046.png

As melting proceeds, the absorbance value for the sample increases, eventually reaching a high plateau as all of the double-stranded DNA breaks apart, or ‘melts’. The mid-point of this process, called the ‘melting temperature’, provides a good indication of how tightly the two strands of DNA are able to bind to each other.

Proteins absorb light in the UV range due to the presence of the aromatic amino acids tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine, all of which are chromophores.

image052.png

Biochemists frequently use UV spectroscopy to study conformational changes in proteins - how they change shape in response to different conditions. When a protein undergoes a conformational shift (partial unfolding, for example), the resulting change in the environment around an aromatic amino acid chromophore can cause its UV spectrum to be altered.

What is literature value in chemistry?

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As far as I am aware of a literature value is a known value, that has been proven and does not change.

Add your answer:

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What is absolute value in chemistry?

I don't know, ask google!

Why is experimenral value different from literature value in chimestry?

Due to experimental errors and limitations in the procedure done in the laboratory.

How can the Kf value of a solvent can be determined?

In our chemistry lab we determined the Kf values using spectrometers.

The difference between an accepted value and an experimental value is called?

In science, and most specifically chemistry, the accepted value denotes a value of a substance accepted by almost all scientists and the experimental value denotes the value of a substance's properties found in a localized lab.

What is the molar conductivity of kcl in infinit dilution?

what is the literature value of KCl molar conductivity at infinite dilution

What are the six category in which nobel prizes are awarded each year?

The prizes in physics, chemistry, physiology or Medicien, literature, and peace were first awarded in 1901.

Are the genes of literature?

Genes is a Chemistry The Divide Each To Make New Baby ..

What has the author Penny Norman written?

Penny Norman has written: 'I can become a chemistry wiz' -- subject(s): Chemistry, Experiments, Juvenile literature

What are the 5 nobel prizes called?

Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace

Can literature be found in science?

of course ya have it in a biology and dat chemistry u get it now

Is it true that if you are good at math but bad at literature you will fail physics and chemistry?

No, it is not true. It is false.

What has the author Steven Connor written?

Steven Connor has written: 'Theory and cultural value' -- subject(s): History and criticism, Literature, Literature, Modern, Modern Literature, Philosophy, Theory, Value in literature 'James Joyce'

What international award is given in the categories of medicine physics chemistry literature economics and peace?

Can you give a sentence with organic chemistry.

an organic compound is a substance that contains the element carbon.

How do you politely inform a chemistry teacher that he is wrong about something?

If you feel the chemistry teacher is wrong then have your facts straight; have any literature contrary to what the chemistry teacher has said and stay after class to discuss it will the chemistry teacher and do not discuss this while other students are present in class.

What has the author Norman Frederick Newbury written?

Norman Frederick Newbury has written: 'The teaching of chemistry' -- subject(s): Chemistry, Study and teaching 'The junior scientist' -- subject(s): Science, Juvenile literature 'The young experimenter' -- subject(s): Science, Juvenile literature

What has the author Stefan Schulz written?

Stefan Schulze has written: 'Die Selbstreflexion der Kunst bei Baudelaire' -- subject(s): Literature, Knowledge, Aesthetics, Self in literature, History and criticism, Art in literature, French poetry

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  1. The Literature Value in Chemistry: Understanding Its Role and Benefits

    Literature value is a measure of the concentration of a particular substance that has been used in past experiments and documented in scientific literature. This measurement is typically expressed as molarity (M) or parts per million (ppm). How does literature value impact chemical reactions?

  2. Reference.com

    What is a literature value in chemistry? - Reference.comA literature value in chemistry is a known value of a substance or a phenomenon that is reported in scientific publications. Literature values are often used as reference points for comparison with experimental results or calculations. Literature values can help chemists validate their methods, verify their data and understand their ...

  3. Introduction to the Chemical Literature

    Introduction to the Chemical Literature | Chemical Information for Chemists: A Primer | Books Gateway | Royal Society of Chemistry Book Chapter CHAPTER 1: Introduction to the Chemical Literature By Leah McEwen Doi: https://doi.org/10.1039/9781782620655-00001 Published: 22 Oct 2013 Special Collection: 2014 ebook collection , RSC eTextbook Collection

  4. How to find the literature value (known value) of theoretical ...

    1. Conduct a literature search: Start by conducting a literature search using academic databases, scientific journals, or chemical databases. Look for studies or articles that specifically mention the synthesis or production of adipic acid. Pay attention to the experimental procedures and the reported yields. 2.

  5. What are literature values in chemistry? [FAQs!]

    A literature value is a constant or known, extensively verified value that can be used in experimental or theoretical calculations. Oftentimes, the values of these quantities are well defined and as such are widely published in textbooks, reference books, or all over the internet from scholarly sources. Table of Contents show

  6. 2. Chemical Literature

    The print version began in 1907 and the electronic version began in 1967. It covers almost anything in the primary literature that can be construed to be new research in chemistry or chemical engineering. This means that it also includes much about the literature in biology, environment, geology, materials, medicine and physics.

  7. What is a literature value in chemistry?

    What is a literature value in chemistry? Constants: Constants are values that can be used either theoretically or experimentally. These are values that do not change as they have been...

  8. Chemistry: Chemical Literature

    Entries abstract the most important information on commonly used and new reagents, including preparation, uses, sources of supply, critical comments, references and more. Organic Syntheses. Reviews for organic synthetic methods. Browse by volume or search across the database (name, structure, etc.). Includes procedures and literature references.

  9. How do you find the correct literature value easily? : r/chemistry

    Does anyone have any tips on how I can find correct literature values easily? Best way is using software dedicated for this task such as SciFinder or Reaxys. Google Scholar often works too. Then there is the good old CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.

  10. Activation Energies and Beyond

    where Q‡ and E‡ are the transition state internal partition function and electronic energy, respectively. The activation energy is then given as. (10) where E int,‡ = −∂ ln Q‡ /∂β is the average internal (rotational and vibrational) energy of the transition state structure or "activated complex".

  11. Research Guides: Chemistry: Exploring Chemical Literature

    Exploring the Chemical Literature. The scientific literature is the collective body of knowledge that has been published since the beginning of modern scientific practice in the mid-17th century. The literature is truly vast, containing hundreds of millions of documents in all kinds of formats and languages, on every topic imaginable.

  12. acid base

    $\begingroup$ Try to discover the molar enthalpies of formation of 1) the ion H+ (or H3O+), 2) the ion OH-, and 3) the liquid water. Take this last value, subtract first the enthalpy of formation of H+ and then the enthalpy of formation of OH-. And here you are. This gives you the molar enthalpiy of neutralization acid + base in solution.

  13. Accepted & Experimental Value

    The accepted value definition is any numerical value that is widely considered to be accurate and are used without having been specifically re-measured. Some quantities can be identified...

  14. 6.7: Tabulated Enthalpy Values

    The enthalpy of combustion of isooctane provides one of the necessary conversions. Table 6.7.1 gives this value as −5460 kJ per 1 mole of isooctane (C 8 H 18 ). Using these data, 1.00LC 8H 18 × 1000mLC 8H 181LC 8H 18 × 0.692gC 8H 181mLC 8H 18 × 1molC 8H 18114gC 8H 18 × − 5460kJ 1molC 8H 18 = − 3.31 × 104kJ.

  15. PDF 6. THE ROLE OF VALUES IN CHEMISTRY EDUCATION

    would contend that chemistry (and science) is value-free as it strives to provide an objective view to explain natural phenomena. In a similar vein the idea of values in chemistry education may also be considered value-free, or if there are values associated with chemistry education, are they attributable to only the education aspects.

  16. The Ideal Gas Law

    Charles's Law. Charles's Law describes the directly proportional relationship between the volume and temperature (in Kelvin) of a fixed amount of gas, when the pressure is held constant. \[ V\propto \; T \] or express from two volume/temperature points: \[ \dfrac{V_1}{T_1}=\dfrac{V_2}{T_2} \] This equation can be used to solve for initial or final value of volume or temperature under the given ...

  17. Where can I find literature values for chemistry?

    What is the literature value for the density of water? Actually, the exact density of water is not really 1 g/ml, but rather a bit less (very, very little less), at 0.9998395 g/ml at 4.0° Celsius (39.2° Fahrenheit). The rounded value of 1 g/ml is what you'll most often see, though.

  18. Table of Commonly Used Physical Constants in Chemistry

    Need a value for a fundamental physical constant? This handy reference table contains commonly used physical constants used in chemistry. ... Literature English Geography Philosophy Issues Languages English as a Second Language Spanish French German ... Stoichiometry Definition in Chemistry. The Dark Side of Application.ProcessMessages in ...

  19. Ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy

    Electronic transitions. Let's take as our first example the simple case of molecular hydrogen, H 2.As you may recall from section 2.1A, the molecular orbital picture for the hydrogen molecule consists of one bonding σ MO, and a higher energy antibonding σ * MO. When the molecule is in the ground state, both electrons are paired in the lower-energy bonding orbital - this is the Highest ...

  20. The Literature of Chemistry: Recommended Titles for Undergraduate

    The Literature of Chemistry is a list of more than 1000 titles that comprises a core collection for an undergraduate chemistry library. It has been compiled by Judith Douville, a chemist and librarian, and reviewed by several chemistry and science librarians.

  21. What is literature value in chemistry?

    In science, and most specifically chemistry, the accepted value denotes a value of a substance accepted by almost all scientists and the experimental value denotes the value of a...