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What Are Footnotes? | Guide with Word Instructions

Published on March 28, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 7, 2022.

Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of the page in a piece of academic writing and indicated in the text with superscript numbers (or sometimes letters or other symbols). You can insert footnotes automatically in Word or Google Docs . They’re used to provide:

  • Citations in certain styles
  • Additional information that would disrupt the flow of the main text

What Are Footnotes

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Table of contents

How to insert footnotes in word and google docs, numbering and placement of footnotes, footnotes in chicago style, footnotes in apa style, footnotes in mla style, frequently asked questions about footnotes and endnotes.

If you’re writing in Microsoft Word or in Google Docs, it’s easy to insert footnotes automatically using the built-in functionality of the software.

Most style guidelines are flexible enough that these automatically inserted footnotes meet their requirements, so that you don’t have to worry about the specifics of formatting.

Inserting footnotes in Word

It’s straightforward to insert footnotes in Word. Just follow these steps:

  • Click on the point in the text where you want the footnote number to appear.
  • Select the “References” tab at the top, and then select “Insert Footnote.”
  • Type whatever text you want into the footnote that appears.

Inserting footnotes in Google Docs

You can also easily add footnotes in Google Docs. Follow the steps below:

  • Click on the point in the text where you want to add a footnote.
  • At the top, click on “Insert” and then on “Footnote” in the drop-down menu.
  • Type the text you want into the footnote.

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Footnotes should be numbered consecutively in the order they appear throughout your paper. Each note should have a unique number; don’t use the same number again even if you cite the same source repeatedly.

Footnote numbers are usually placed at the end of the relevant clause or sentence. The number appears after any punctuation, except when the clause ends with an em dash , in which case the number appears before it. Don’t add a space before the number.

Chicago style uses footnotes for citations (unless you’re following Chicago author-date ). Footnotes can also be used to add extra information such as commentary on the source cited, or elaborations on a point you touched on in the main text.

In Chicago footnotes , you place a footnote at the end of the clause or sentence that needs a citation. The footnote contains full information about each source the first time you cite it, and shortened information for subsequent citations of the same source.

       1. Tegan George and Jack Caulfield, “Academic Integrity vs. Academic Dishonesty,” March 10, 2022, https://www.scribbr.com/plagiarism/academic-dishonesty/.

 2. George and Caulfield, “Academic Integrity.”

Full information about all your sources is usually included in a bibliography at the end, except in very short papers, where footnote citations may be used alone if your institution allows it.

Chicago recommends using your word processor’s built-in footnote function to add footnotes, but a couple of formatting details may need to be changed manually:

  • Add an indent at the start of each footnote (before the number).
  • Write the number at the start of the note in normal text (not superscript), followed by a period and then a space.
  • Leave one blank line between footnotes, and make sure footnotes are single-spaced.

APA footnotes are used only for providing extra information, since APA in-text citations appear in parentheses instead.

You can use them to provide supplemental information such as additional examples or clarifications; do this sparingly, as APA warns against including nonessential information. Footnotes are also used to provide copyright attribution when it’s needed.

               1 From What Parents Can Expect in Behavior Therapy , by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017 (https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/infographics/what-parents-expect.html). In the public domain.

              2 A second round of testing was initially planned, but this idea was abandoned due to …

APA recommends using your word processing software to automatically insert footnotes, but add an indent at the start of each footnote if this isn’t done automatically. The footnote begins with the superscript footnote number followed by a space.

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MLA footnotes are used to provide supplemental information such as extra examples, clarifications of citation practice, or elaborations on ideas.

MLA in-text citations appear in parentheses, not in notes, but where a lot of citations are needed at once, they can be placed in a footnote to avoid cluttering the text.

           1 Citations of marginalia refer to George’s edition and include page numbers. Citations of the poem refer to Davis’s edition and include line numbers.

        2 This remains a controversial point. Researchers in the field have debated this issue since …

            3 See Crittenden 5–11; Kent 17–34; Smith 44–50; and Jones 36.

MLA recommends using your word processor to automatically insert footnotes, styling the number at the start of the citation in superscript, followed by a space. An indent should also be added at the start of the footnote (before the number).

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page they refer to. This is convenient for the reader but may cause your text to look cluttered if there are a lot of footnotes.

Endnotes appear all together at the end of the whole text. This may be less convenient for the reader but reduces clutter.

Both footnotes and endnotes are used in the same way: to cite sources or add extra information. You should usually choose one or the other to use in your text, not both.

Footnotes are notes indicated in your text with numbers and placed at the bottom of the page. They’re used to provide:

  • Citations (e.g., in Chicago notes and bibliography )

Be sparing in your use of footnotes (other than citation footnotes), and consider whether the information you’re adding is relevant for the reader.

To insert a footnote automatically in a Word document:

  • Click on the point in the text where the footnote should appear
  • Select the “References” tab at the top and then click on “Insert Footnote”
  • Type the text you want into the footnote that appears at the bottom of the page

If you need to change the type of notes used in a Word document from footnotes to endnotes , or the other way around, follow these steps:

  • Open the “References” tab, and click the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the “Footnotes” section.
  • In the pop-up window, click on “Convert…”
  • Choose the option you need, and click “OK.”

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Chicago Manual of Style Footnotes and Bibliography Guide

Chicago Manual of Style Footnotes and Bibliography Guide

  • 46-minute read
  • 14th July 2023

Note: This is an advanced guide to Chicago (CMoS) Footnote and Bibliography Referencing, useful for professional editors, academics, and students looking to bump up their grades with flawless referencing! If you’re new to Chicago and feel a little lost, check out our introduction to Chicago referencing .  For extra help from Chicago experts, try our student proofreading services  for free, or learn more about our  editing services for businesses .

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMoS) uses both a footnote and bibliography system and an author-date system to cite sources.

This guide is to the footnotes and bibliography approach. You can access the CMoS author-date citation guide here .

This guide includes all information related to CMoS 17th ed. The customer should use this (the most up-to-date) edition, but please watch out for any customer comments saying that they’re using an older one. 

You should also pay attention to the requested dialect (usually US, Australian, or UK English ) and note:

  • Dialect will not change the spelling of words or use of punctuation in titles or direct quotations, which will depend upon the original work. If you suspect that there may have been an error, simply raise that as a query and suggest that the customer checks with the original. 
  • Anything that is specifically an element of the referencing system (e.g. positioning of commas and periods) should be consistent within the referencing . If it appears to be different from CMoS referencing style, then you should leave a comment to note this and suggest that the customer checks with the style preferences of their institution.
  • Words that might be used to describe the format of a source within the reference list (e.g., “catalog”) will follow the rules of the preferred dialect in the same way as the main narrative. 

CMoS Footnotes and Bibliography Guide: Notes/Footnotes: The Basics

CMoS footnotes correspond to a superscript number in the text. Subsequent footnotes referencing the same source should use a shortened footnote. 

The in-text superscript number doesn’t have a period (so like this 1 ), while the footnote number is written as normal text and with a period.

Commenting on footnotes

Highlight the word next to the superscript number (as otherwise Word does strange things with the footnote numbering) and preface your comment with “Footnote:”. E.g. “Footnote: The publication date is missing, please review.”

No date (n.d.)

If a source has no date, use “n.d.” in the footnote and corresponding bibliographic entry. 

Page numbers

Page numbers should be included in footnotes (full and shortened) for direct quotes and paraphrasing. Do not use “p.” in front of the page numbers. If a page range is needed, use an en dash. 

In the bibliography, page ranges should only be given in instances such as a chapter in a book or an article in a journal. 

Organization as author 

Corporate (group/organizational) authors are given at the start of bibliographic entries even if the publisher is the same as the author. 

If a group’s/organization’s name is given as an acronym in the footnotes, the acronym should be used in the bibliography as well (to make it easier to find), with the full name given in parentheses afterward. 

Pseudonyms 

If the author’s real name is not known, write [pseud.] following the pseudonym. If the author’s real name is known, write their real name in square brackets instead. 

In the case of common pseudonyms, you would usually omit the author’s real name, but it can be included if the customer wishes.

Multiple authors

CMoS has specific author guidelines for footnotes, shortened footnotes, and bibliographic entries. Please pay attention to the first and last name order for the first author in all cases. 

  • Footnotes : All author names go in first and last name order. 
  • Shortened footnotes : Only use the authors’ last names. 
  • Bibliographic entries : The first author’s name goes in last name, first name order. All following authors and contributors (e.g., editors, illustrators, translators) go in first and last name order. If there are more than 10 authors, only list the first author, followed by et al. (the same rule applies in footnotes and shortened footnotes). 

See the table below for formatting and examples of sources with multiple authors.

Multiple works, Same Author

If multiple entries are written by the same author, list them chronologically in the bibliography and use three em dashes (–––) to replace the author’s name after the first entry for that author. 

If multiple entries are written by the same author and are from the same year, use YYYYa, YYYYb, etc. to differentiate the works in the bibliography and the footnotes. Entries with the same author and year should be listed alphabetically according to the first main word in the title (i.e., ignore articles). 

NB: If two (or more) sources are by the same two (or more) authors, only use a, b, etc. if their names are in the same order for both sources. If the sources swap name orders, do not use a, b, etc.; treat them as normal.

Citing Multiple Works

You can cite more than one source in the same footnote, separated by semi-colons. The sources should be put in alphabetical order (using the author’s name).

What if There Isn’t an Author?

If there is no corporate or individual author provided for your source, start the bibliographic entry or footnote with the title of the source . 

Works that have “Anonymous” listed as the author should be cited accordingly and listed in the reference list alphabetically. However, do not put “anonymous” for a source with no attributed author. 

Secondary Citations

Secondary sources are not encouraged but may be necessary if the original source is not available. In these cases, the source is cited as “quoted in…” and both the original and secondary sources should be listed in the footnotes and bibliography.

The Bibliography

CMoS author-date puts the bibliography on a separate page at the end of a document. All footnotes should point to a full entry in the bibliography. Exceptions to this include personal communications (e.g., emails and social media posts), well-known encyclopedias and dictionaries, and web pages. 

Bibliography Formatting

The bibliography is placed at the end of a document (before the index) on a separate page. It should be titled “Bibliography” at the beginning of the page. 

The bibliography should be single spaced and use hanging indents.

The Bibliography in Detail

Bibliographic entries should be listed alphabetically by the first author’s last name, organization name, titles, descriptions in square brackets, or abbreviations (i.e., whatever the bibliographic entry begins with). 

For sources with no date (n.d.), such as web pages, use an “Accessed” or “Modified” date in the entry (see the specific bibliographic entry for specific formatting guidelines). 

Basic Structure of a Reference Entry 

  • Title of Work 
  • Other information (contributors, publisher, accessed dates, etc.) 

Author Names 

The first author listed in a source is written in Last Name, First Name order. All other authors and contributors’ names are written in First and Last Name order. 

“And” is used between two/the last two authors, not an ampersand.

Titles are written in title case unless they are in a language other than English. 

Titles of large works are italicized. 

Short works, such as articles or chapters of a book, and unpublished works, such as working papers, use quotation marks. 

When to use abbreviations 

Noun forms such as editor, translator, volume, and edition are abbreviated in a bibliographic entry, but verb forms (e.g., edited by, translated by) are spelled out. 

If available, the year a source was written or published, as appropriate, should appear in all reference entries. 

If an accessed date or modification date is needed for a source (e.g., for an online source), it should go before the URL and should take the following form: Month Day, Year (e.g., Accessed April 24, 2023). 

Punctuation 

Elements in bibliographic entries are separated by periods. See the examples for more specific formatting guidelines. 

Printed Media

Audiovisual media.

Audiovisual media may have other contributors, such as performers, directions, composers, featured artists, etc. List other contributors’ roles using the abbreviation guidelines given earlier (i.e., nouns are abbreviated and verbs are written out).

Online Sources

Online sources may require an accessed or modification date. If there is no date, use n.d. in place of the year. 

Keep in mind that website pages do not have to be listed in the bibliography and can just be mentioned in the text. This is up to the discretion of the customer. Keep a consistent approach and follow the customer’s lead in this situation.

What to Do When the Customer’s Approach Differs

Keep in mind that a customer may have specific guidelines from their institution that deviate from the guidance listed here. Here are some things to consider if you have a document that requires CMoS 17th ed. but differs from the advice given in this guide. 

  • If a customer has done something different but is consistent, leave a comment noting that their work differs from standard CMoS 17th guidelines and enforce their consistent usage. 
  • If a customer has deviated from standard CMoS 17th guidelines but is not consistent, use this guide to make their citations/entries consistent and leave a comment outlining why you made these changes. Suggest that they check with their institutional guidelines if they are not sure about which CMoS edition to use. 
  • If a customer has requested a different/older edition of CMoS, please consult relevant and credible online resources if you are not sure whether you need to make certain changes. 
  • Contact Editor Support if you are still unsure.

But What About…?

Tables should be numbered separately from any figures (table 1, table 2, etc.). Tables should be cited in the text by number, not location (e.g., don’t write “see the above table”), and should be labeled consecutively. In in-text mentions, “table” is lowercase, for example, “see table 1 for more information.” 

If more than one table is referenced in the text at one time, write out each table number rather than using a number range. For example, “tables 14, 15, and 16 [not 14–16] illustrate this idea.” 

Figures (or illustrations) may be labeled as “figure #” or “(fig. #).” When referring to a figure in the text, write out “figure.” If referring to a figure in parentheses, use the abbreviation (fig.). All figures in a text should be numbered consecutively. 

Block quotes?  

CMoS states that quotations of five or more lines, or more than 100 words, should be blocked. CMoS recommends blocking two or more lines of poetry. Block quotations should be indented and single spaced. The superscript for the block quotation follows the final period in the quote and should have a corresponding footnote and bibliographic entry. 

What Does the Proofreading Service Cover for Referencing?

  • Check that bibliographic entries and footnotes are given in accordance with the standard or customer’s version of CMoS. When in doubt, go for consistency and leave a note to explain your approach.
  • It is the customer’s responsibility to make sure that all footnotes appear in the bibliography and vice versa, but if you spot that something is missing, point it out with a comment.
  • There is no need to check that the dates and spellings of author names match for each in-text citation and corresponding full reference; however, if you do see an issue along these lines, point it out in a comment and ask the customer to check the original source.
  • Check whether all the expected elements of a bibliographic entry are present (this will depend upon the type of source), including the correct use of punctuation, capitalization, and italics. Check also that the references are given in alphabetical order. Note any missing information in a comment for the customer.
  • Ensure that the bibliography is on a new page, that there are no additional spaces between references, and apply hanging indents as appropriate.
  • You should read through direct quotes to check that the surrounding text leads to the quote appropriately and to correct any typos or obvious errors, such as additional spaces. If there looks to be an error or inconsistency, leave a comment for the customer to check the original source; it would be risky to try to fix it without access to the source itself.

What Falls Outside the Scope of Proofreading

The main purpose of referencing is for writers to avoid plagiarism. For that same reason, there is a limit on what can be done for a customer. Additionally, some actions might come under our formatting service.

  • When proofreading, you do not need to worry about the spacing or font used in the bibliography (or anywhere in the text, for that matter). This comes under the formatting service.
  • When proofreading, you do not need to worry about how the tables/figures are presented, although you should comment if the customer has neglected to number or provide a caption for these.
  • Do not add or change information within a footnote or bibliographic entry unless there is an obvious typo. (You can comment to advise that they check the original source if it seems to be grammatically incorrect, for example.)
  • Do not add footnotes or bibliographic entries, even if they seem to be missing; leave a comment instead.
  • Don’t fill in missing information; leave a comment about what appears to be missing and provide information about how the reference could be written to accommodate it (e.g., “n.d.” if the date is unknown).
  • There is no need to check URLs; if they appear incomplete, leave a comment for the customer to check them.
  • Don’t guess at which of two inconsistent names or dates may be correct; point the anomaly out to the customer (using a comment at the first instance of the issue) and ask them to check the source.
  • Any text that does not form part of the word count (i.e., if the table/figure is an image) can be ignored; just leave a single comment to explain this to the customer (it can go in the comments box when you submit the document through the Proofed dashboard).

List of sample bibliographic entries and footnotes

Here is a list of footnote and bibliographic entries you may come across in your proofreading.

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Chicago-Style Citation Quick Guide

Chicago-style source citations come in two varieties: (1) notes and bibliography and (2) author-date. If you already know which system to use, follow one of the links above to see sample citations for a variety of common sources. If you are unsure about which system to use, read on.

Notes and Bibliography or Author-Date?

The notes and bibliography system is preferred by many working in the humanities—including literature, history, and the arts. In this system, sources are cited in numbered footnotes or endnotes. Each note corresponds to a raised (superscript) number in the text. Sources are also usually listed in a separate bibliography. The notes and bibliography system can accommodate a wide variety of sources, including unusual ones that don’t fit neatly into the author-date system.

The author-date system is more common in the sciences and social sciences. In this system, sources are briefly cited in the text, usually in parentheses, by author’s last name and year of publication. Each in-text citation matches up with an entry in a reference list, where full bibliographic information is provided.

Aside from the use of numbered notes versus parenthetical references in the text, the two systems share a similar style. Follow the links at the top of this page to see examples of some of the more common source types cited in both systems.

Most authors choose the system used by others in their field or required by their publisher. Students who are unsure of which system to use will find more information here .

For a more comprehensive look at Chicago’s two systems of source citation and many more examples, see chapters 14 and 15 of The Chicago Manual of Style.

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Footnotes & Appendices 

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APA style offers writers footnotes and appendices as spaces where additional, relevant information might be shared within a document; this resource offers a quick overview of format and content concerns for these segments of a document. Should additional clarification be necessary, it is always recommended that writers reach out to the individual overseeing their work (i.e., instructor, editor, etc.). For your convenience, a student sample paper is included below; please note the document is filled with  Lorem Ipsum  placeholder text and references to footnotes and appendices are highighlighted. Additional marginal notes also further explain specific portions of the example. 

Footnotes 

Footnotes are supplementary details printed at the bottom of the page pertaining to a paper’s content or copyright information. This supporting text can be utilized in any type of APA paper to support the body paragraphs.

Content-Based Footnotes

Utilizing footnotes to provide supplementary detail can enrich the body text and reinforce the main argument of the paper. Footnotes may also direct readers to an alternate source for more detail on a topic. Though content footnotes can be useful in providing additional context, it is detrimental to include tangential or convoluted information. Footnotes should detail a focused subject; lengthier sections of text are better suited for the body paragraphs.

Acknowledging Copyright

When citing long quotations, images, tables, data, or commercially published questionnaires in-text, it is important to credit the copyright information in a footnote. Functioning much like an in-text citation, a footnote copyright attribution provides credit to the original source and must also be included in a reference list. A copyright citation is needed for both direct reprinting as well as adaptations of content, and these may require express permission from the copyright owner.

Formatting Footnotes

Each footnote and its corresponding in-text callout should be formatted in numerical order of appearance utilizing superscript. As demonstrated in the example below, the superscripted numerals should follow all punctuation with the exception of dashes and parentheses.

For example: 

Footnote callouts should not be placed in headings and do not require a space between the callout and superscripted number. When reintroducing a footnote that has previously been called out, refrain from replicating the callout or footnote itself; rather, format such reference as “see Footnote 4”, for example. Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the page on which the corresponding callout is referenced. Alternatively, a footnotes page could be created to follow the reference page. When formatting footnotes in the latter manner, center and bold the label “Footnotes” then record each footnote as a double-spaced and indented paragraph. Place the corresponding superscripted number in front of each footnote and separate the numeral from the following text with a single space.

Formatting Copyright Information

To provide credit for images, tables, or figures pulled from an outside source, include the accreditation statement at the end of the note for the visual. Copyright acknowledgements for long quotations or questionnaires should simply be placed in a footnote at the bottom of the page.

When formatting a copyright accreditation, utilize the following format:

  • Establish if the content was reprinted or adapted by using language such as “from” for directly copied material or “adapted from” for material that has been modified
  • Include the content’s title, author, year of publication, and source
  • Cite the copyright holder and year of copyright or indicate that the source is public domain or licensed under Creative Commons
  • If express permission was required to reprint the material, include a statement indicating that permission was acquired

Appendices 

When introducing supplementary content that may not fit within the body of a paper, an appendix can be included to help readers better understand the material without distracting from the text itself. Primarily used to introduce research materials, specific details of a study, or participant demographics, appendices are generally concise and only incorporate relevant content. Much like with footnotes, appendices may require an acknowledgement of copyright and, if data is cited, an adherence to the privacy policies that protect participant identities.

Formatting Appendices

An appendix should be created on its own individual page labelled “Appendix” and followed by a title on the next line that describes the subject of the appendix. These headings should be centered and bolded at the top of the page and written in title case. If there are multiple appendices, each should be labelled with a capital letter and referenced in-text by its specific title (for example, “see Appendix B”). All appendices should follow references, footnotes, and any tables or figures included at the end of the document.

Text Appendices 

Appendices should be formatted in traditional paragraph style and may incorporate text, figures, tables, equations, or footnotes. In an appendix, all figures, tables, and other visuals should be labelled with the letter of the corresponding appendix followed by a number indicating the order in which each appears. For example, a table labelled “Table B1” would be the first table in Appendix B. If there is only one appendix in the document, the visuals should still be labelled with the letter A and a number to differentiate them from those contained in the paper itself (for example, “Figure A3” is the third figure in the singular appendix, which is not labelled with a letter in the heading). 

Table or Figure Appendices 

When an appendix solely contains a table or figure, the title of the figure or table should be substituted with the title of the appendix. For example, if Appendix B only includes a figure, the figure should be labelled “Appendix B” rather than “Figure B1”, as it would be named if there were multiple figures included.

If an appendix does not contain text but includes numerous figures or table, the appendix should be formatted like a text appendix. The appendix would receive a name and label, and each figure or table would be given a corresponding letter and number. For example, if Appendix C contains two tables and one figure, these visuals would be labelled “Table C1”, “Table C2”, and “Figure C1” respectively.

Sample Paper    

Media File: APA 7 - Student Sample Paper (Footnotes & Appendices)

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Citing Sources -- Chicago -- Bibliography style

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Chicago's bibliography style of citation

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Chapter 14 of the Chicago Manual of Style presents Chicago's bibliography style of citation.  This style uses a system of notes, whether footnotes or endnotes or both, and usually a bibliography.

Footnotes and endnotes are formulated in exactly the same way -- the only difference is that footnotes appear on the bottom of the page on which a work is cited, whereas endnotes appear at the end of a manuscript.  Citations in a bibliography are formulated in a similar way to a footnote or endnote, but do have slight variations from the way a footnote or endnote is formulated.

Most courses at Chico State that use Chicago's bibliography style ask you to cite sources using footnotes as opposed to endnotes.  All courses require a bibliography to accompany your notes.  Ask your instructor if you have further questions about the elements of the Chicago style s/he wants you to use in completing your coursework.

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Chicago Citation Style

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Footnotes or Text Citations?

Footnote basics, text citations.

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Chicago style allows either footnotes or text citations (also called in-text citations or author-date citations). Ask your professor which style he or she prefers. (Personally, I loathe text citations, as they break up the text and make it very confusing to read. Some people love them. Go figure.)

Whichever style you use, be sure to cite every quotation you use and all information you borrow from other sources. Failure to cite your sources is plagiarism.

Use Word tools! In MS Word, select "References" and then "Insert footnote". This will place the footnote correctly and number it. If you later move the citation it refers to, the footnote will be moved and renumbered automatically.

  • If you include a bibliography with complete citations of all the works you have used, you may use abbreviated footnotes throughout.
  • If you don't include a bibliography, you  must give a full citation for the first footnote from each work and abbreviated footnotes for subsequent citations.
  • A complete footnote has the same information as the citation in the bibliography, with some differences in format, plus the page number of a particular quotation.
  • An abbreviated footnote contains the author's last name, a brief title, and the page number of the quotation.

For a Book:

Bibliography

Guion, David M. The Trombone: Its History and Music, 1697-1811 . New York:

         Gordon and Breach, 1988.

Complete footnote:

Author in normal order, followed by comma; publication information in parentheses, page of quotation at end. Not indented, single spaced; use 10-pt. type.

David M. Guion, The Trombone: Its History and Music, 1697-1811 (New York: Gordon

and Breach, 1988), 23.

Abbreviated footnote:

Guion, The Trombone , 78.

For a Periodical Article:

Adair, Douglas. "A Note on Certain of Hamilton's Pseudonyms." The William and Mary Quarterly,

         Third series 12, no. 2 (April 1955)): 282-297.  JSTOR . Viewed 3 Oct. 2014.

Complete footnote

Douglas Adair, "A Note on Certain of Hamilton's Pseudonyms," ( The William and Mary Quarterly, Third series 12, no. 2 (April 1955)): 282.

Abbreviated footnote

Adair, "A Note on Certain of Hamilton's Pseudonyms," 295.

  • Text citations must agree exactly with entries in your bibliography.
  • Include the last name(s) of the author(s) and the date of publication with no comma in between.
  • If you are citing a specific page, put the page number after the date, separated by a comma.
  • Put the text citation before a mark of punctuation.
  • For more than three authors, use the first author with et al.

Star Trek "adapts its stories to incorporate familiar mythical paradigms" (Geraghty 2005, 191).

Recent literature has examined long-run price drifts following initial public offerings (Ritter 1991; Loughran and Ritter 1995), stock splits (Ikenberry, Rankine, and Stice 1996), seasoned equity offerings (Loughran and Ritter 1995), and equity repurchases (Ikenberry, Lakonishok, and Vermaelen 1995). [ex. from Chicago Manual of Style , 622]

Nanoparticulate formations "may ... ultimately reduce health-care costs" (Tartau et al. 2009).

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Turabian Footnote/Endnote Style

Table of Contents: Books E-books Journal Articles (Print) Journal Articles (Online) Magazine Articles (Print) Magazine Articles (Online) Newspaper Articles Review Articles Websites For More Help

The examples in this guide are meant to introduce you to the basics of citing sources using Kate Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (seventh edition) .  Kate Turabian created her first "manual" in 1937 as a means of simplifying for students The Chicago Manual of Style ; the seventh edition of Turabian is based on the 15th edition of the Chicago Manual . For types of resources not covered in this guide (e.g., government documents, manuscript collections, video recordings) and for further detail and examples, please consult the websites listed at the end of this guide, the handbook itself or a reference librarian .

Whenever you refer to or use another's words, facts or ideas in your paper, you are required to cite the source. Traditionally, disciplines in the humanities (art, history, music, religion, theology) require the use of bibliographic footnotes or endnotes in conjunction with a bibliography to cite sources used in research papers and dissertations. For the parenthetical reference (author-date) system (commonly used in the sciences and social sciences), please refer to the separate guide Turabian Parenthetical/Reference List Style . It is best to consult with your professor to determine the preferred citation style.

Indicate notes in the text of your paper by using consecutive superscript numbers (as demonstrated below). The actual note is indented and can occur either as a footnote at the bottom of the page or as an endnote at the end of the paper. To create notes, type the note number followed by a period on the same line as the note itself. This method should always be used for endnotes; it is the preferred method for footnotes. However, superscript numbers are acceptable for footnotes, and many word processing programs can generate footnotes with superscript numbers for you.

When citing books, the following are elements you may need to include in your bibliographic citation for your first footnote or endnote and in your bibliography, in this order:

1. Author or editor; 2. Title; 3. Compiler, translator or editor (if an editor is listed in addition to an author); 4. Edition; 5. Name of series, including volume or number used; 6. Place of publication, publisher and date of publication; 7. Page numbers of citation (for footnote or endnote).

Books with One Author or Corporate Author

Author: Charles Hullmandel experimented with lithographic techniques throughout the early nineteenth century, patenting the "lithotint" process in 1840. 1

Editor: Human beings are the sources of "all international politics"; even though the holders of political power may change, this remains the same. 1

Corporate Author: Children of Central and Eastern Europe have not escaped the nutritional ramifications of iron deficiency, a worldwide problem. 1

First footnote:

1 Michael Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 145-146.

1 Valerie M. Hudson, ed., Culture and Foreign Policy (Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1997), 5.

1 UNICEF, Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union , edited by Alexander Zouev (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 44.

Note the different treatment of an editor's name depending on whether the editor takes the place of an author (second example) or is listed in addition to the author (third example). 

Subsequent footnotes:

       Method A: Include the author or editor's last name, the title (or an abbreviated title) and the page number cited.

2 Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850, 50.

2 Hudson, ed., Culture and Foreign Policy, 10.

2 UNICEF, Generation in Jeopardy, 48.

       Method B: Include only the author or editor's last name and the page number, leaving out the title.  

2 Twyman, 50.

2 Hudson, ed., 10.

2 UNICEF, 48.

Use Method A if you need to cite more than one reference by the same author.

1. Michael Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850  (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 145-146.

Ibid., short for ibidem, means "in the same place."  Use ibid. if you cite the same page of the same work in succession without a different reference intervening.  If you need to cite a different page of the same work, include the page number.  For example:   2 Ibid., 50.

Bibliography:

Hudson, Valerie, N., ed. Culture and Foreign Policy . Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1997.

Twyman, Michael. Lithography 1800-1850 . London: Oxford University Press, 1970.

UNICEF.  Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the             Former Soviet Union . Edited by Alexander Zouev. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.

Books with Two or More Authors or Editors

1 Russell Keat and John Urry, Social Theory as Science, 2d ed. (London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1982), 196.

1 Toyoma Hitomi, "The Era of Dandy Beauties," in Queer Voices from Japan: First-Person Narratives from Japan's Sexual Minorities,  eds. Mark J. McLelland, Katsuhiko Suganuma, and James Welker ( Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 157.

For references with more than three authors, cite the first named author followed by "et al." Cite all the authors in the bibliography.

1 Leonard B. Meyer, et al., The Concept of Style , ed. Berel Lang (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 56.

2 Keat and Urry, Social Theory as Science , 200.

2 Meyer, et al., The Concept of Style , 90.

Keat, Russell, and John Urry. Social Theory as Science , 2d. ed. London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1982.

Hitomi, Toyoma. "The Era of Dandy Beauties." In Queer Voices from Japan: First-Person Narratives from Japan's Sexual Minorities,  edited by Mark J. McLelland, Katsuhiko Suganuma, and James Welker, 153-165.   Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007.

Meyer, Leonard B., Kendall Walton, Albert Hofstadter, Svetlana Alpers, George Kubler, Richard Wolheim, Monroe Beardsley, Seymour Chatman, Ann Banfield, and Hayden White. The Concept of Style . Edited by Berel Lang.  Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979.  

Electronic Books

Follow the guidelines for print books, above, but include the collection (if there is one), URL and the date you accessed the material.

1 John Rae, Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy (Boston: Hillard, Gray and Company, 1834), in The Making of the Modern World,   http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/MOME?af=RN&ae=U104874605&srchtp=a&ste=14  (accessed June 22, 2009).  

2 Rae, Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy .

Rae, John.  Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy. Boston: Hillard, Gray and Company, 1834. In The Making of the Modern World,   http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/MOME?af=RN&ae=U104874605&srchtp=a&ste=14  (accessed June 22, 2009).  

PERIODICAL ARTICLES

For periodical (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.) articles, include some or all of the following elements in your first footnote or endnote and in your bibliography, in this order:

1. Author; 2. Article title; 3. Periodical title; 4. Volume or Issue number (or both); 5. Publication date; 6. Page numbers.

For online periodicals   , add: 7. URL and date of access; or 8. Database name, URL and date of access. (If available, include database publisher and city of publication.)

For an article available in more than one format (print, online, etc.), cite whichever version you used.

Journal Articles (Print)

1 Lawrence Freedman, "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict," Survival 40, no. 4 (1998): 52.

Here you are citing page 52.  In the bibliography (see below) you would include the full page range: 39-56.

If a journal has continuous pagination within a volume, you do not need to include the issue number:

1 John T. Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118 (1997): 520.

Subsequent footnotes :

2 Freedman, "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict," 49.   

2 Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," 545.

Freedman, Lawrence. "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict."   Survival 40, no. 4 (1998): 39-56.

Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor."  American Journal of Philology 118 (1997): 517-554.  

Journal Articles (Online)

Cite as above, but include the URL and the date of access of the article.

On the Free Web

1 Molly Shea, "Hacking Nostalgia: Super Mario Clouds," Gnovis 9, no. 2 (Spring 2009), http://gnovisjournal.org/journal/hacking-nostalgia-super-mario-clouds  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Through a Subscription Database

1 John T. Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 524, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/v118/118.4.kirby.html  (accessed June 25, 2009).

1 Michael Moon, et al., "Queers in (Single-Family) Space," Assemblage 24 (August 1994): 32, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3171189  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Subsequent Footnotes:

2 Shea, "Hacking Nostalgia."

2 Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," 527. 

2 Moon, "Queers in (Single-Family) Space," 34. 

Shea, Molly. "Hacking Nostalgia: Super Mario Clouds," Gnovis 9, no. 2 (Spring 2009), http://gnovisjournal.org/journal/hacking-nostalgia-super-mario-clouds  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 524, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/v118/118.4.kirby.html  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Moon, Michael, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Benjamin Gianni, and Scott Weir. "Queers in (Single-Family) Space." Assemblage 24 (August 1994): 30-7, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3171189  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Magazine Articles (Print)

Monthly or Bimonthly

           1 Paul Goldberger, "Machines for Living: The Architectonic Allure of the Automobile," Architectural Digest, October 1996, 82.

1 Steven Levy and Brad Stone, "Silicon Valley Reboots," Newsweek , March 25, 2002, 45.

          2 Goldberger, "Machines for Living," 82.

          2 Levy and Stone, "Silicon Valley Reboots," 46.

Goldberger, Paul.  "Machines for Living: The Architectonic Allure of the Automobile." Architectural Digest, October 1996.

Levy, Steven, and Brad Stone. "Silicon Valley Reboots." Newsweek , March 25, 2002.

Magazine Articles (Online)

Follow the guidelines for print magazine articles, adding the URL and date accessed.

1 Bill Wyman, "Tony Soprano's Female Trouble," Salon.com, May 19, 2001, http://www.salon.com/2001/05/19/sopranos_final/ (accessed February 13, 2017).

1 Sasha Frere-Jones, "Hip-Hop President." New Yorker , November 24, 2008, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=35324426&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009).

Wyman, Bill. "Tony Soprano's Female Trouble." Salon.com, May 19, 2001, http://www.salon.com/2001/05/19/sopranos_final/ (accessed February 13, 2017).

Frere-Jones, Sasha. "Hip-Hop President." New Yorker , November 24, 2008. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=35324426&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009).

Newspaper Articles

In most cases, you will cite newspaper articles only in notes, not in your bibliography. Follow the general pattern for citing magazine articles, although you may omit page numbers.

        1 Eric Pianin, "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End," Washington Post , February 13, 2002, final edition.

        1 Eric Pianin, "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End," Washington Post , February 13, 2002, final edition, in LexisNexis Academic (accessed June 27, 2009).

Note: In the example above, there was no stable URL for the article in LexisNexis, so the name of the database was given rather than a URL.

Review Articles

Follow the pattern below for review articles in any kind of periodical.

1 Alanna Nash, "Hit 'Em With a Lizard," review of Basket Case, by Carl Hiassen, New York Times , February 3, 2002, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=105338185&sid=2&Fmt=6&clientId=5604&RQT=309&VName=PQD (accessed June 26, 2009).  

1 David Denby, "Killing Joke," review of No Country for Old Men , directed by Ethan and Joel Coen,  New Yorker, February 25, 2008, 72-73, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=fah&AN=30033248&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009). 

Second footnote:

2 Nash, "Hit 'Em With a Lizard."

2 Denby, "Killing Joke."

In most cases, you will be citing something smaller than an entire website. If you are citing an article from a website, for example, follow the guidelines for articles above. You can usually refer to an entire website in running text without including it in your reference list, e.g.: "According to its website, the Financial Accounting Standards Board requires ...".

If you need to cite an entire website in your bibliography, include some or all of the following elements, in this order:

1. Author or editor of the website (if known) 2. Title of the website 3. URL 4. Date of access

Financial Accounting Standards Board .  http://www.fasb.org  (accessed April 29, 2009).

FOR MORE HELP

Following are links to sites that have additional information and further examples:

Turabian Quick Guide (University of Chicago Press)

Chicago Manual of Style Online

RefWorks Once you have created an account, go to Tools/Preview Output Style to see examples of Turabian style.

Purdue's Online Writing Lab (OWL) Excellent source for research, writing and citation tips.

Citing Sources Duke University's guide to citing sources. The site offers comparison citation tables with examples from APA , Chicago , MLA and Turabian for both print and electronic works.

How to Cite Electronic Sources From the Library of Congress. Provides MLA and Turabian examples of citing formats like films, photographs, maps and recorded sound that are accessed electronically.

Uncle Sam: Brief Guide to Citing Government Publications The examples in this excellent guide from the University of Memphis are based on the Chicago Manual of Style and Kate Turabian's Manual .

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If you are using Chicago style footnotes or endnotes, you should include a bibliography at the end of your paper that provides complete citation information for all of the sources you cite in your paper. Bibliography entries are formatted differently from notes. For bibliography entries, you list the sources alphabetically by last name, so you will list the last name of the author or creator first in each entry. You should single-space within a bibliography entry and double-space between them. When an entry goes longer than one line, use a hanging indent of .5 inches for subsequent lines. Here’s a link to a sample bibliography that shows layout and spacing . You can find a sample of note format here .

Complete note vs. shortened note

Here’s an example of a complete note and a shortened version of a note for a book:

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009), 27-35.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated , 27-35.

Note vs. Bibliography entry

The bibliography entry that corresponds with each note is very similar to the longer version of the note, except that the author’s last and first name are reversed in the bibliography entry. To see differences between note and bibliography entries for different types of sources, check this section of the Chicago Manual of Style .

For Liquidated , the bibliography entry would look like this:

Ho, Karen, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Durham: Duke University Press, 2009.

Citing a source with two or three authors

If you are citing a source with two or three authors, list their names in your note in the order they appear in the original source. In the bibliography, invert only the name of the first author and use “and” before the last named author.

1. Melissa Borja and Jacob Gibson, “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics: The Case of Evangelical Responses to Southeast Asian Refugees,” The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17, no. 3 (2019): 80-81, https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1643983 .

Shortened note:

1. Borja and Gibson, “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics,” 80-81.

Bibliography:

Borja, Melissa, and Jacob Gibson. “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics: The Case of Evangelical Responses to Southeast Asian Refugees.” The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17. no. 3 (2019): 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1643983 .

Citing a source with more than three authors

If you are citing a source with more than three authors, include all of them in the bibliography, but only include the first one in the note, followed by et al. ( et al. is the shortened form of the Latin et alia , which means “and others”).

1. Justine M. Nagurney, et al., “Risk Factors for Disability After Emergency Department Discharge in Older Adults,” Academic Emergency Medicine 27, no. 12 (2020): 1271.

Short version of note:

1. Justine M. Nagurney, et al., “Risk Factors for Disability,” 1271.

Nagurney, Justine M., Ling Han, Linda Leo‐Summers, Heather G. Allore, Thomas M. Gill, and Ula Hwang. “Risk Factors for Disability After Emergency Department Discharge in Older Adults.” Academic Emergency Medicine 27, no. 12 (2020): 1270–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.14088 .

Citing a book consulted online

If you are citing a book you consulted online, you should include a URL, DOI, or the name of the database where you found the book.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009), 27-35, https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1215/9780822391371 .

Bibliography entry:

Ho, Karen. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Durham: Duke University Press, 2009. https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1215/9780822391371 .

Citing an e-book consulted outside of a database

If you are citing an e-book that you accessed outside of a database, you should indicate the format. If you read the book in a format without fixed page numbers (like Kindle, for example), you should not include the page numbers that you saw as you read. Instead, include chapter or section numbers, if possible.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009), chap. 2, Kindle.

Ho, Karen. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Durham: Duke University Press, 2009. Kindle.

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Footnotes provide additional information for a term, phrase, or sentence mentioned in the text. The information added in the footnote should not be a continuation of the text being discussed in the text. Such information should be included in the text and not as a footnote. Include only information that provides supplementary details as a footnote.

The advantage of using a footnote is that it does not hinder the reader from the main topic discussed in the text.

You can follow either footnote style or endnote style.

In addition to providing additional information, footnotes also act as citations in some styles. For example, Chicago, Turabian, and Oscola citation styles follow footnote citation instead of the author–date citation.

Footnotes are used in two ways:

  • To provide additional information
  • To act as citations of references

What is the difference between a footnote and an endnote?

A footnote appears at the end of each page on which it is cited. An endnote, on the other hand, appears at the end of the paper under the heading “Notes.” In most citation styles, footnotes are used to provide additional information. Any supplementary information about the topic being discussed in the text can be added in the footnote. The following sections will explain how to add callouts in the text and add footnotes in the footer. A footnote will act as a short citation, whereas an endnote may act as a bibliography and provide full details of the source. You can use both footnotes and endnotes in your paper, but use different numbering styles to distinguish them.

Do footnotes need a bibliography?

If footnotes provide a short citation of the source (e.g., Chicago style), they need the bibliography to be added to allow the reader to see the full information of the source.

Do MLA, APA, and Chicago use footnotes?

All three citation styles use footnotes. While MLA and APA use footnotes to provide additional information, Chicago uses footnotes in one of its systems of citing the sources (notes–bibliography system).

Using and formatting footnotes

In most citation styles, footnotes are used to provide additional information. Any supplementary information about the topic being discussed in the text can be added in the footnote. The following sections will explain how to add callouts in the text and adding footnotes in the footer.

Citing footnotes in the text

Footnotes are cited as superscript numerals in the text. You can follow either Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) or lowercase Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, etc.) as citations. However, use them consistently in your paper. One footnote should have only one idea. Footnotes should not be overused, as having more footnotes will affect the layout of the paper. If you want to add more information, it is advisable to add the content in the text or create an appendix.

When you want to insert a footnote citation, you need to follow some basic rules of punctuation:

1. Number footnote citations consecutively according to their order of presentation in the text.

2. Add the callout of the footnote after the punctuation mark. See the below examples for your understanding:

This is a text footnote citation. 1

In this work, 2 the author tries to clarify the idea.

3. Place the footnote citation before the dash:

A footnote citation—against the citations 3 —provides an extension to the text.

4. The footnote callout should immediately follow the text or any punctuation mark without any space.

5. If you want to cite the same footnote again in the text, simply add “see Footnote #.” “#” denotes the footnote number. Note that the details of the footnote need not be added again.

Adding footnotes in the footer

Footnote text is included on the same page on which the callout appears. It is included at the end of the page as a footer. The footnote number is given in superscript. The footnote text follows the number. Do not leave any space between the number and the text. Avoid using many footnotes, as it will affect the layout and look of the page. If the content added as a footnote is part of the main text, include it in the text. As adding many footnotes is not recommended, avoid repeating the same footnotes with a new number. If you want the reader to refer to the already provided footnote, please mention the footnote number in the text.

This is an example of a sentence in the text. Do not use long sentences to avoid confusing the reader. State your ideas in simple, clear sentences. 1 It is important that you avoid using too many footnotes, as using many footnotes will affect the layout of your paper.

The content you add in footnotes should only provide additional information of the word, phrase, or clause discussed in the paper and should not have points related to the main topic discussed in the text. 2

_________________________________

1 This is the first footnote.

2 Note that the footnote callout is given after the period.

Key takeaways

  • Footnotes can provide additional information or act as citations.
  • Use superscript Arabic numerals or lowercase Roman numerals as callouts.
  • Follow consecutive numbering for callouts.
  • Avoid adding many footnotes to your work.

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The Use of Footnotes

Footnotes are the acceptable method of acknowledging material which is not your own when you use it in an essay.  Basically, footnoted material is of three types: 

  • Direct quotations from another author's work.  (These must be placed in quotation marks).
  • Citing authority for statements which are not quoted directly.
  • Material of an explanatory nature which does not fit into the flow of the body of the text.

In the text of an essay, material to be footnoted should be marked with a raised number immediately following the words or ideas that are being cited.

"The only aspect of Frontenac's conduct the king...did not condemn was his care for military security," Eccles stated, condemning Frontenac's administration. 2

The footnotes may be numbered in sequence on each page or throughout the entire essay.

I.    Form and Content of Footnotes:

A.   from a book:.

      1 W. J. Eccles, Frontenac The Courtier Governor (Toronto:  McClelland and Stewart Limited, 1959), 14.

[The information given in a footnote includes the author, the title, the place of publication, the publisher, the date of publication and the page or pages on which the quotation or information is found.]

B.   From an article in a journal: 

      1 Peter Blickle, "Peasant Revolts in the German Empire in the Late Middle Ages," Social History , Vol. IV, No. 2 (May, 1979), 233.

C.   From a book containing quotations from other sources:

      1 Eugene A. Forsey, "Was the Governor General's Refusal Constitutional?", cited in Paul Fox, Politics:  Canada (Toronto:  McGraw-Hill Company of Canada Ltd., 1966), 186.

D.   From a standard reference work: 

      1 Norman Ward, “Saskatchewan,” in The Canadian Encyclopedia , 2 nd ed., Vol. 3, 1935.

      2 J. K. Johnson and P. B. Waite, “Macdonald, Sir John Alexander,” in The Dictionary of Canadian Biography , Vol. 12, 599

E.   From the Internet: 

In citing material read on the Internet, it is not sufficient to indicate the website alone.  You must provide information about author, title, and date of the document you are using, as follows:

      1 T. J. Pritzker, (1993).  "An Early Fragment from Central Nepal" [Online].  Available:  http://www.ingress.com/~astanart/pritzker/pritzker.html [1995, June].

The final date [1995, June] is the date the website was consulted.

For more information about how to cite electronic information see Xia Li and Nancy Crane, The Handbook for Citing Electronic Resources or http://www.uvm.edu/~ncrane/estyles/.

II.     Rules to Remember in Writing Footnotes:

  • Titles of books, journals or magazines should be underlined or italicized.
  • Titles of articles or chapters—items which are only a part of a book--are put in quotation marks.

III.   Abbreviating in Footnotes:

The first time any book or article is mentioned in a footnote, all the information requested above must be provided.  After that, however, there are shortcuts which should be used:

(a)  Several quotations in sequence from the same book:

The abbreviation to be used is "Ibid.," a Latin word meaning "in the same place."  (Notice that Ibid. is not underlined).  Ibid. can be used by itself, if you are referring to the same page as the previous footnote does, or it can be combined with a page number or numbers.

      1 Gerald Friesen, The Canadian Prairies:  A History (Toronto:  University of Toronto Press, 1984), 78.

      2 Ibid.  

      3 Ibid., 351.

(b)    Reference to a source that already has been cited in full form but not in the reference immediately preceding , is made by using the author's last name (but not the first name or initials unless another author of the same surname has been cited), the title--in shortened form, if desired--and the page number.

      1 William Kilbourn, The Firebrand (Toronto:  Clark, Irwin and Company Limited, 1956), 35.

      2 John L. Tobias, "Canada's Subjugation of the Plains Cree, 1879-1885," in Sweet Promises:  A Reader on Indian-White Relations in Canada , ed. J. R. Miller (Toronto:  University of Toronto Press, 1991), 224.

      3 Kilbourn, The Firebrand , 87.

      4 Tobias, "Canada's Subjugation of the Plains Cree," 226.

Bibliography

The bibliography should be on a separate page.  It should list the relevant sources used in the research for the paper.  This list should be arranged alphabetically by the surname of the author.  (Unlike the footnote reference, the surname is shown first, set off from the rest of the information.)  The information required is:  author, title, place of publication, publisher and date of publication.

NOTE:    The information is separated for the most part by periods (rather than by commas, as in the footnotes) and the parentheses enclosing the facts of publication are dropped.

Eccles, W. J.  Frontenac The Courtier Governor .  Toronto:  McClelland and Stewart Limited, 1959.

Johnson, J. K. and P. B. Waite.  “Macdonald, Sir John Alexander.”  In The Dictionary of Canadian Biography , Vol. 12,            591-612.

Koenigsberger, H. G. and George L. Mosse.  Europe in the Sixteenth Century .  London:  Longmans, 1971.

Laslett, Peter.  "The Gentry of Kent in 1640," Cambridge Historical Journal , Vol. IX, No. 2 (Spring 1948):  18-35.

Pritzker, T. J.  (1993).  "An Early Fragment from Central Nepal," [Online].  http://www.ingress. com/~astanart/pritzker       /pritzker.html.  [1995 June].

Tobias, John L.  "Canada's Subjugation of the Plains Cree, 1879-1885."  In Sweet Promises:  A Reader on Indian-White       Relations in Canada , ed. J. R. Miller.  Toronto:  University of Toronto Press, 1991:  212-240.

Ward, N.  “Saskatchewan.”  In The Canadian Encyclopedia , 2 nd ed., Vol. 3, 1931-1938.

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / Citation Basics / Differences Between Footnotes, Endnotes, and Parenthetical Citations

Differences Between Footnotes, Endnotes, and Parenthetical Citations

There is a lot of terminology when it comes to citations and giving proper credit to sources. Three of the terms that sometimes get mixed up are footnotes, endnotes, and parenthetical citations. Each is different, as we will see below.

No matter which of these types of in-text citations you use, you will need to include a works cited list or bibliography at the end of your paper that includes the full references for your sources. Your instructor may also ask you to create an annotated bibliography where you also include a short paragraph summarizing and evaluating each source along with its full reference.

Here’s a run-through of everything this page includes:

What is a footnote?

Footnotes vs. endnotes, parenthetical citations, troubleshooting.

A footnote is a type of in-text citation. The information in the text body is marked with a superscript number 1 (raised number), and the corresponding source citation and note is at the bottom (or the foot ) of the page the superscript appears on.

footnotes example

Both footnotes and endnotes are common writing tool features implemented when using various citation styles. They provide writers with a clear method in directing the reader to further information on the research topic and additional citations . Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, footnotes and endnotes have a few key differences.

The most obvious difference between footnotes and endnotes is the placement of each within a paper. Footnotes are found at the bottom of a page (i.e. in the footer) and endnotes are located at the end of a complete document, or sometimes at the end of a chapter or section .

While the content in footnotes and endnotes can look the same, they serve different functions. Footnotes are used as a citation vehicle for a short citation, while endnotes can contain more text without compromising the format of the paper. They each also typically use a different numbering system, which allows the reader to determine where they should look for the additional information (either in the footer of the page, or at the end of the document).

APA format only uses parenthetical citations/reference list. MLA format can have footnotes and/or endnotes, but more commonly uses parenthetical citations and work cited. Chicago format almost always has footnotes or endnotes.

Both footnotes and endnotes tend to be supplemented by a bibliography or works cited page, which displays the complete citation of each source the writer cited in each footnote and endnote throughout their paper. Depending on the citation style, the footnote/endnote entry provides more specific location information than the entry in the bibliography. For instance, when citing a whole book in Chicago Manual of Style, the page number of the cited information is contained in the footnote, whereas this localized information is omitted from that source’s entry in the bibliography.

Footnote Entry Example :

F. Scott Fitzgerald, This Side of Paradise (New York: Scribner, 1920), 25.

Bibliography Entry Example :

Fitzgerald, F. Scott. This Side of Paradise . New York: Scribner, 1920.

Parenthetical Citations are citation tools commonly used in APA and format  MLA format . They usually contain the cited works author’s name, and an additional piece of information that further describes the source, usually the publication date of the source or the page number where the cited material can be located within the source.

Parenthetical Citations are used directly following the quote or cited material written in the document. Typically, they come at the end of the sentence that contains the cited material. They let the reader know when the author is using information or words that are not their own. While they demonstrate that a citation is being made, they should not be treated as a substitute for quotation marks when an author’s words are being presented exactly. They should also be included even when paraphrasing someone else’s work.

Each parenthetical citation made in a document should correspond to an entry in a works cited page or reference list at the end of the document. The entry in the works cited or reference list provides further detail about the source being cited.

Parenthetical Citation Example:

(James, 2009)

Reference List Entry Example:

James, Henry. (2009). The ambassadors. Rockville, MD: Serenity Publishers.

Solution #1: How to choose between using footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical in-text citations

1. Look at the citation style’s guidelines; what does it recommend to use for in-text citations?

Most citation styles favor a certain in-text citation format, but allow flexibility to use notes if needed.

Generally, use parenthetical in-text citations for these styles

  • MLA — Notes are allowed in some cases (bibliographic notes, content notes), but are not often used. Click here for more information.
  • APA– Notes are allowed in some cases (content footnotes, copyright attribution), but are not encouraged. Click here for more information.
  • Chicago, author-date

Use notes for:

  • Chicago, notes-bibliography

2. What in-text citation style does your instructor, journal, colleagues, or even area of expertise usually use?

Ask others or examine guidelines from your instructor or journal. Context matters! For example, Chicago style has two styles of citation: notes-bibliography (uses footnotes) and author-date (uses parentheticals).

  • Notes-Bibliography :  Often used in the humanities.
  • Author-Date:  Often used in the science and social sciences.

Solution #2: How to create small, raised numbers (superscript) numbers for footnotes

The small, raised numbers you see in footnotes are called superscript . It looks like this:

See the example of superscript at the end of this sentence. 1

Below, we will cover how to create superscript in a Google Doc, in a Word document, and via HTML.

  • Highlight the number you want to turn into superscript.
  • Go to the “Format” section and follow this page:  Format –> Text –> Superscript
  • Select “Superscript” to format the number.
  • Windows:   [Ctrl] and [.]
  • Mac:  [Command] and [.]

Word document

  • On the “Home” editing bar/menu, look for the superscript button. It looks like this: [X 2 ]

Place the number you want as super script with the tags <sup>1</sup>.

Find free citing help for  MLA format  at www.easybib.com! We also have guides to help anyone make APA citations for books, websites, and other sources.

  • Annotated Bibliography
  • Block Quotes
  • Citation Examples
  • et al Usage
  • In-text Citations
  • Page Numbers
  • Reference Page
  • Sample Paper
  • APA 7 Updates
  • View APA Guide
  • Bibliography
  • Works Cited
  • MLA 8 Updates
  • View MLA Guide

The DOI is not included in parenthetical citations. The DOI is usually only included in a source’s full reference in the bibliography.

For more information, see these guides on citing a journal in MLA and citing a journal in APA .

A parenthetical citation is a form of in-text citation. The only difference is it is enclosed in parentheses unlike a narrative citation (APA style) or a citation in prose (MLA style). Narrative citation and citation in prose are incorporated into the text and act as a part of the sentence along with the text.

Rutledge (2018) urged the need for a proper education system.

Parenthetical:

The need for a proper education system is urged (Rutledge, 2018).

Citation in prose:

First occurrence: Bill Rutledge urged the need for a proper education system.

Subsequent occurrences: Rutledge urged the need for a proper education system.

The need for a proper education system is urged (Rutledge).

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HIST 794: History of Development (Spring 2024; Prof. Engerman): Citing Your Sources

  • Archival material used in February 28, 2024 session
  • Background Sources, Secondary Sources, and Databases
  • Citing Your Sources

Introduction

These guidelines are based on the 17th edition of  The Chicago Manual of Style  (CMOS17), which is a standard used in much academic writing in the various fields within the Humanities.  Members of the Yale community who are using a computer on campus or are logged in using the  Yale VPN  can access the CMOS17 online using  this link to the Orbis record . These guidelines are focused on using footnotes or endnotes and a bibliography to cite sources used, and are based on the guidance contained in  Chapter 14: Notes and Bibliography  of CMOS17. If you need assistance with other common academic citation styles, such as MLA Style (Modern Language Association) or APA Style (American Psychological Association), please consult the  Principles of Citing Sources  resource maintained by Yale's Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning.

Note that when citing widely available publications, you typically do not cite the repository that holds the material.  One exception to this is when the analysis or argument in your work engages copy-specific features of a publication, such as hand-written annotations on, or materials tipped into a particular copy of the publication by someone who owned or used the publication. In these cases it is important to cite the repository holding the specific copy containing features that are central to your scholarly output. 

The CMOS17 guidelines below are organized in two sections and provide examples from Yale's collections.

  • Bibliography vs. Footnotes/Endnotes focuses on citation basics and uses published materials as examples.
  • Citing Sources from Archival Collections offers advice for a citing unpublished sources typically found in archival collections or licensed databases.

The following information is meant as a general guide. Remember, maintaining a consistent style in citations within a single work (that is, your intellectual output), and providing enough information for your readers to find and identify your sources, are the main goals.

1. Bibliography vs. Footnotes/Endnotes ("Notes" in CMOS17, Chapter 14)

Notes (both foot and end)  are typically numbered, corresponding to superscript numerical references in the text, and are similarly styled to the text itself, with elements separated by commas or parentheses and names given in normal order.  Bibliography citations  are listed alphabetically, so the name of a first author is inverted (last name first) and elements are separated by periods. Bibliography entries do not typically include specific page references for a published work (exception: the page range of an article or chapter in a larger work should be included), or physical location information within an archival collection (e.g., boxes and folders); specific page references and specific item locations should be included in footnotes. Note that CMOS17 discourages the older-style use of 3 em-dashes (———) in lieu of an author's name in bibliographies where two or more works by the same author are cited; for the sake of clarity repeat the author's name in each bibliography citation and sort the entries alphabetically, with all single-authored references for that author preceding those involving more than one author (CMOS17, 15.67). See CMOS17, 14.20 for more on the basic structure of a note, and 14.21 for more on the basic structure of a bibliography entry.

Note style example:  1. Brooks Mather Kelley,  Yale: A History  (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), 116-117.

Bibliography style example :  Kelley, Brooks Mather.  Yale: A History . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.

Most academic works include both a bibliography and either footnotes or endnotes. When this is the case, the full citation for a work referenced or quoted from should appear in the bibliography. A short form can be used in citations in the notes, because the notes do not need to duplicate the full citation in the bibliography (CMOS17, 14.19). Typically the short form includes the author's last name, a shortened title, and the page reference (CMOS17, 14.30). Only the last name of the author is used in the short form citation, unless additional initials are needed to distinguish between authors with the same last name; if there are two authors, use both last names; if there are three or more authors use the first author's last name followed by  et al.  (CMOS17, 14.32). Presentation of the title (e.g., in italics, in quotation marks) should mirror the presentation of the full title in the bibliography or prior note; if the full title is four words or less, use the entire title in the short form (CMOS17, 14.33). The short form citation used in the notes must include enough information so that a reader of your work can unambiguously identify the entry in the bibliography to which it corresponds. Note that CMOS17 discourages the use of the older-style Latin abbreviations  ibid.  and  op. cit.  in favor of the clarity of short-form citations.

Bibliography examples:  

Chauncey, Henry, Jr., John T. Hill, and Thomas Strong.  May Day at Yale, 1970: Recollections: the Trial of Bobby Seale and the Black Panthers . Westport, CT: Perspecta Press, 2015.

Jeffers, Robinson.  Granite & Cypress: Rubbings from the Rock . Santa Cruz: Lime Kiln Press, 1975.

Robin, Corey, and Michelle Stephens. "Against the Grain: Organizing TAs at Yale."  Social Text  49, 14, no. 4 (Winter 1996): 43-73.

Note (short form) examples:  

1. Chauncey et al.,  May Day , 107. 

2. Robin and Stephens, "Against the Grain," 52.

3. Jeffers,  Granite & Cypress , 15.

If you are  not  including a bibliography in your work, and are relying solely on notes for your citations, you must fully cite a work referenced or quoted from in the first note related to it. Subsequent notes referencing it can then use a short-form citation (CMOS17, 14.19).

Notes only (no bibliography) examples:

1. Martha Lund Smalley, ed.,  American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the Nanking Massacre, 1937-1938  (New Haven: Yale Divinity School Library, 1997), 23-24.

2. Smalley,  American Missionary Eyewitnesses , 32.

2. Citing Sources from Archival Collections

General Guidelines for Citing Materials from Archival Collections

Citation of documents in archival collections can be trickier than citations for publications, because you have to provide enough information about the document  and  the archival collection in which you found it  and  the repository where that collection can be found to allow someone reading your analysis to find that document if they wanted to. The following are some guidelines to assist you in citing your document:

For the document cite:

  • Author(s) of the document.
  • This might be on the document itself, such as a report or an essay.
  • If there is nothing resembling a title on the document, you will have to devise a title that is descriptive and meaningful ( examples:  Letter to Alice Jones, Notes on a meeting to discuss the partition of Eastern Europe).
  • A date the document was created. This might be an actual day, a month, or a year, and you may have to supply an approximate date based on context if there is no actual date on the document itself.
  • If there is a series number or an accession number these should be supplied as well, since they are often a critical part of returning to the correct box in an archival collection.

For each archival collection being used cite: 

  • Title of the collection.
  • Collection number or other identifier unique within the repository that identifies the collection. This information is frequently included in citations in parentheses following the collection title.

For the repository holding the archival collection being used cite (repositories often provide a preferred form of citation in access tools such as archival finding aids):

  • Name of the repository.
  • Name of the parent institution or geographic location of the repository if necessary to disambiguate the repository’s name from potentially similar institutional names.

For materials found online, whether on the open web or in locally licensed databases, providing a uniform identifier, such as a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or Digital Object Identifier (DOI), that will lead readers of your work to the resource cited is a key element of your citation. This is covered in much greater detail , with examples, in CMOS17, 14.6 through 14.18.

In Bibliographies vs. Notes (Foot or End)

If you are using a bibliography  and  footnotes or endnotes (hereafter referred to as notes) in your research output, cite the archival collection and repository only, not the individual documents from the collection, in the bibliography. In your notes cite individual documents and use a consistent short form reference to the archival collection. This will allow your notes to remain concise and document-focused, while still providing your readers with information regarding the name and location of the archival collection in which you found the documents.

Bibliography examples :

Baker, George Pierce, Pageants Collection (DRA 16). Special Collections, Robert B. Haas Family Arts Library, Yale University.

Johnson, James Weldon, and Grace Nail Johnson Papers (JWJ MSS 49). Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) Records (MS 1965). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

Note (short form) examples:

1. Claude A. Barnett, letter to Grace Nail Johnson, 27 June 1942, Series I, Box 25, Folder 14, Johnson Papers.

2. The Oxford Historical Pageant Book of Words, 1907, Box 1, Folder 7, Baker Collection.

3. Executive Committee meeting minutes, 7 April 1988, Accession 2016-M-0061, Box 4, Folder 10, NRDC Records.

If using foot- or endnotes only (no bibliography) cite the archival collection fully in the first relevant note, using a consistent short-form reference to the archival collection citation in subsequent notes.

1. Letter from Rudolf C. Bertheau to Ellsworth Huntington, 29 August 1938, Series IV, Box 29, Folder 296, Ellsworth Huntington Papers (MS 1), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

2. Report to the Board of Directors of the Human Betterment Foundation, 12 February 1935, Series IV, Box 29, Folder 299, Huntington Papers.

Chicago Manual of Style

The following are useful links for assistance with using CMOS17:

►  Chicago-Style Citation Quick Guide

►  A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations: Chicago Style for Students and Researchers  (this is Kate L. Turabian's encapsulation of the Chicago Style)

►  Purdue University OWL  (Online Writing Lab) offers a helpful overview of the CMOS17

See the following sections of CMOS17 for additional guidance on specific portions or types of citations.

►  For formatting of author names:  Chapters 14.72 through 14.84.

►  For formatting of titles:  Chapters 14.85 through 14.99.

►  For citing a book:

• General guidance:  Chapters 14.100 through 14.102.

• With editors, translators, and other contributors:  Chapters 14.103 through 14.105.

• With chapter, edition, volume, or series information:  Chapters 14.106 through 14.126.

• Facts concerning publication:  Chapters 14.127 through 14.146.

• Citing ebooks:  Chapters 14.159 through 14.163.

Preferred Citations for Yale Special Collections Repositories

Use the following form of each repository's name in formulating your citations to materials from Yale's special collections:

Arts Library Special Collections  

► Special Collections, Robert B. Haas Family Arts Library, Yale University.

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library  

► Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

► Or in some cases credit a Beinecke collection before the library's citation - see the bottom of the Beinecke's  "Copyright Questions"  page for more information.

Divinity Special Collections

► Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library.

Law Library Rare Book Collection

► Rare Book Collection, Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School.

Lewis Walpole Library

► The Lewis Walpole Library, Yale University.

Manuscripts and Archives

► Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

Medical Historical Library

► Medical Historical Library, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library.

Music Library Special Collections

► Irving S. Gilmore Music Library, Yale University.

Yale Center for British Art

► Yale Center for British Art, Institutional Archives.

► Yale Center for British Art, Rare Books and Manuscripts.

Citation Management Tools

You may already have a software program or a system for keeping track of your sources, but, if not, you will want to think about what way of organizing your research will work best for you this coming year. The Yale University Library has licenses to certain citation management tools, and there are also free tools on the web for managing your citations. Probably the two most useful tools to consider are:

  • This is a free web tool used by many historians.
  • This is a resource licensed by the Yale Library; you will need to use your Yale e-mail address to create an account.

For more information and an overview of several of the resources that are available, see our citation management guide .

  • << Previous: Background Sources, Secondary Sources, and Databases
  • Last Updated: Feb 22, 2024 8:33 AM
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COMMENTS

  1. Chicago Style Footnotes

    There are two types of footnote in Chicago style: full notes and short notes. Full notes contain the full publication details of the source. The first citation of each source should be a full note. 1. Virginia Woolf, "Modern Fiction," in Selected Essays, ed. David Bradshaw (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 11.

  2. What Are Footnotes?

    Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of the page in a piece of academic writing and indicated in the text with superscript numbers (or sometimes letters or other symbols). You can insert footnotes automatically in Word or Google Docs. They're used to provide: Citations in certain styles. Additional information that would disrupt the flow ...

  3. Chicago Citation Format: Footnotes and how to make them

    Why We Use Footnotes. Chicago footnotes provide a note each time a source is referenced and are often combined with a bibliography at the end. The footnote usually includes the author's name, publication title, publication information, date of publication, and page number(s) if it is the first time the source is being used.

  4. How to Write Footnotes: Rules and Examples

    How to write a footnote. Within the text, place a footnote signal directly after the passage that the footnote relates to. Footnote signals should come after punctuation and at the end of sentences when possible. The only exception is the dash (—), in which case the footnote signal comes before, not after. At the bottom of the page, that same ...

  5. Chicago Manual of Style Footnotes and Bibliography Guide

    The Chicago Manual of Style (CMoS) uses both a footnote and bibliography system and an author-date system to cite sources. This guide is to the footnotes and bibliography approach. You can access the CMoS author-date citation guide here. Jump to Full List of Source Types.

  6. Chicago Manual of Style 17th Edition

    The Chicago Notes and Bibliography (NB) system is often used in the humanities to provide writers with a system for referencing their sources through the use of footnotes, endnotes, and through the use of a bibliography. This offers writers a flexible option for citation and provides an outlet for commenting on those sources, if needed. Proper ...

  7. Notes and Bibliography Style

    Journal articles often list many authors, especially in the sciences. If there are four or more authors, list up to ten in the bibliography; in a note, list only the first, followed by et al. ("and others"). For more than ten authors (not shown here), list the first seven in the bibliography, followed by et al.

  8. How to Write Footnotes in MLA and APA

    Place footnotes at the bottom of the page in their own special section. Follow the same numerical order on the page. Firstly, start each note with the superscript number that corresponds with the in-text citation. Then, remember that bibliographical notes provide citations similar to the works cited and vary based on the source.

  9. Chicago-Style Citation Quick Guide

    The notes and bibliography system is preferred by many working in the humanities—including literature, history, and the arts. In this system, sources are cited in numbered footnotes or endnotes. Each note corresponds to a raised (superscript) number in the text. Sources are also usually listed in a separate bibliography.

  10. Footnotes & Appendices

    Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the page on which the corresponding callout is referenced. Alternatively, a footnotes page could be created to follow the reference page. When formatting footnotes in the latter manner, center and bold the label "Footnotes" then record each footnote as a double-spaced and indented paragraph.

  11. How to do APA footnotes

    How to format footnotes correctly: Always use the footnotes function. The callout should be in superscript, like this. 1. The callout should come after the punctuation, like this. 2. If there's a dash 3 —the callout comes before the punctuation, not after. All callouts should appear in numerical order, like this. 4.

  12. How to Cite a Footnote in APA

    The citation that includes the author and year would then come at the end of the statement in parentheses. These in-text citations refer the reader to the bibliography page for the full citation. Footnotes are useful when you want to insert a citation without interrupting the flow of the sentence or paragraph. Footnotes include a superscript ...

  13. Footnotes, endnotes, & bibliography

    Chapter 14 of the Chicago Manual of Style presents Chicago's bibliography style of citation. This style uses a system of notes, whether footnotes or endnotes or both, and usually a bibliography. Footnotes and endnotes are formulated in exactly the same way -- the only difference is that footnotes appear on the bottom of the page on which a work is cited, whereas endnotes appear at the end of a ...

  14. Footnotes & Text Citations

    If you don't include a bibliography, you must give a full citation for the first footnote from each work and abbreviated footnotes for subsequent citations. A complete footnote has the same information as the citation in the bibliography, with some differences in format, plus the page number of a particular quotation. An abbreviated footnote ...

  15. Footnotes in APA With Format Tips and Examples

    Content footnotes are used to provide the reader with some extra information about the source. For example, you may want to direct the reader to another chapter in the book. Try to avoid footnotes in APA 7, but if you must use one, keep it short and simple. For more complex ideas, add an appendix or try to incorporate it into the text itself.

  16. Turabian Footnote/Endnote Style

    Turabian Footnote/Endnote Style. The examples in this guide are meant to introduce you to the basics of citing sources using Kate Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (seventh edition) . Kate Turabian created her first "manual" in 1937 as a means of simplifying for students The Chicago Manual of Style; the ...

  17. Bibliography

    Citing a source with two or three authors. If you are citing a source with two or three authors, list their names in your note in the order they appear in the original source. In the bibliography, invert only the name of the first author and use "and" before the last named author. Note: 1. Melissa Borja and Jacob Gibson, "Internationalism ...

  18. Footnotes

    This is a text footnote citation. 1. In this work, 2 the author tries to clarify the idea. 3. Place the footnote citation before the dash: A footnote citation—against the citations 3 —provides an extension to the text. 4. The footnote callout should immediately follow the text or any punctuation mark without any space.

  19. Guidelines for Footnotes and Bibliography

    Bibliography. The bibliography should be on a separate page. It should list the relevant sources used in the research for the paper. This list should be arranged alphabetically by the surname of the author. (Unlike the footnote reference, the surname is shown first, set off from the rest of the information.)

  20. Differences Between Footnotes, Endnotes, and Parenthetical Citations

    Depending on the citation style, the footnote/endnote entry provides more specific location information than the entry in the bibliography. For instance, when citing a whole book in Chicago Manual of Style, the page number of the cited information is contained in the footnote, whereas this localized information is omitted from that source's ...

  21. ZoteroBib: Fast, free bibliography generator

    Style selection. Format your bibliography using APA, MLA, Chicago / Turabian, Harvard, or any of the 10,000+ other CSL styles.. Copy Citation / Note. As you're writing, you can quickly generate parenthetical citations or footnotes /endnotes to paste into your document without typing names or dates by hand.

  22. Yale University Library Research Guides: HIST 794: History of

    Most academic works include both a bibliography and either footnotes or endnotes. When this is the case, the full citation for a work referenced or quoted from should appear in the bibliography. A short form can be used in citations in the notes, because the notes do not need to duplicate the full citation in the bibliography (CMOS17, 14.19).