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  • Published: 05 July 2021

A holistic seismotectonic model of Delhi region

  • Brijesh K. Bansal 1 , 2 ,
  • Kapil Mohan 1 ,
  • Mithila Verma 2 &
  • Anup K. Sutar 3  

Scientific Reports volume  11 , Article number:  13818 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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  • Solid Earth sciences

Delhi region in northern India experiences frequent shaking due to both far-field and near-field earthquakes from the Himalayan and local sources, respectively. The recent M3.5 and M3.4 earthquakes of 12th April 2020 and 10th May 2020 respectively in northeast Delhi and M4.4 earthquake of 29th May 2020 near Rohtak (~ 50 km west of Delhi), followed by more than a dozen aftershocks, created panic in this densely populated habitat. The past seismic history and the current activity emphasize the need to revisit the subsurface structural setting and its association with the seismicity of the region. Fault plane solutions are determined using data collected from a dense network in Delhi region. The strain energy released in the last two decades is also estimated to understand the subsurface structural environment. Based on fault plane solutions, together with information obtained from strain energy estimates and the available geophysical and geological studies, it is inferred that the Delhi region is sitting on two contrasting structural environments: reverse faulting in the west and normal faulting in the east, separated by the NE-SW trending Delhi Hardwar Ridge/Mahendragarh-Dehradun Fault (DHR-MDF). The WNW-ESE trending Delhi Sargoda Ridge (DSR), which intersects DHR-MDF in the west, is inferred as a thrust fault. The transfer of stress from the interaction zone of DHR-MDF and DSR to nearby smaller faults could further contribute to the scattered shallow seismicity in Delhi region.

Introduction

The National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi is located about 250 km away from the seismically active Himalayan collision zone and experiences shaking frequently from far field and near field earthquakes. Delhi is placed in seismic zone IV in the seismic zoning map of India (IS 1893, Part1: 2016) (Fig.  1 a). This intraplate region is exposed to moderate to high risk due to Himalayan earthquakes, e.g., Mw 7.5 Garhwal Himalaya in 1803 (1803 GH), Mw 6.8 Uttarkashi earthquake in 1991 (1991 UKS), Mw 6.6 Chamoli earthquake in 1999 (1999 CHM), Mw 7.8 Gorkha earthquake in 2015 (2015 GRK) (Fig.  1 a) and a few moderate earthquakes from the Hindukush region as well as local earthquakes, e.g., M 6.5 Delhi earthquake in 1720, M5.0 Mathura earthquake in 1842, M 6.7 Bulandshahar earthquake in 1956 and M5.8 Moradabad earthquake in 1966 (Fig.  1 b).

figure 1

( a ) Seismicity of Himalaya (magnitude ≥ 4.5 from 01.01.1900 to 10.06.2020) taken from USGS and overlapped on SRTM data of 90 m resolution ( http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org ). The Ganga basin area is shown with a black rectangle. The red rectangle represents Delhi and surroundings. ( b ) the structure of the basement of the Ganga Basin based on Fuloria1 and Sastri et al.2 overlapped with the epicenter of earthquakes of Delhi region. The figure is prepared using Generic Mapping Tools version 4.4.0 3 .

Delhi is one of the largest cities of the country and habitat for ~ 20 million people. It is a socio-economic hub with a wide spectrum of dwellings, from low-income people with poor constructions to very large buildings and infrastructure representing the rapidly growing economy. The seismic activity in Delhi and surroundings has been a cause for concern to the public and also it caused damage to infrastructure from time to time. Recognizing the high-risk potential, a seismic monitoring and hazard evaluation program was initiated for the Delhi region about two decades ago. The continuous monitoring with progressively upgraded network provides new insights into the spatial-depth distribution and source mechanisms.

The existing studies of Delhi Region suggest two contradictory subsurface structural trends: (i) thrust/reverse fault with strike-slip component 4 and (ii) normal fault with strike-slip component 5 , 6 (Supplementary Table 1) . However, in absence or with limited subsurface geophysical information, the focal mechanisms and depth distribution of earthquakes prove to be helpful to guide identification of seismogenic structures/faults.

Recently, three earthquakes occurred in Delhi region (12 April 2020 of M3.5, 10 May 2020 of M3.4 and 29th May 2020 of M4.4), which have been recorded by a dense local network of 15 seismic stations. Taking advantage of the availability of good quality of recorded data, the faulting mechanisms of these moderate events along with two past events (01st June 2017 of M 4.2 and 29th May 2011 of M3.4) are determined for re-examination of structural trends. A comprehensive appraisal (seismological and geophysical) has also been conducted to probe linkages within local geological structures of the region and to propose a holistic seismotectonic model.

Geology and tectonic setting of Delhi region

The Ganga basin, with an area of about 250,000 sq km falls within Long. 77° E–88° E and Lat. 24° N–30° N (Fig.  1 b). It is located between the northern fringe of the Indian peninsula and the Himalaya and extends from Delhi-Hardwar Ridge (DHR) in the west to Munger-Saharsa ridge in the east (Fig.  1 a,b). Delhi is located near the northern fringe of the Proterozoic Aravalli-Delhi fold belt and western edge of the Ganga basin (Fig.  1 b).

The terrain is generally flat except for a low NNE-SSW trending Delhi Hardwar ridge in the southern and central part of the area which consists of Quartzite while the Quaternary sediments, comprising the older and newer alluvium, cover the rest of the area. The thickness of the alluvium, both on the eastern and western side of the ridge, is variable but west of the ridge it is generally thicker (290 m).

The thick deposits of soft sediments of Yamuna plains plays a dominant role in ground motion amplification as experienced during past earthquakes 7 .

Historically, studies of the Himalayan foot-hills belt were initially conducted by Medlicott 8 , Theobald 9 , Oldham 10 , and Middlemiss 11 . Later, Wadia 12 and Auden 13 and several other officers of the Geological Survey of India mapped different parts of this belt. Agocs 14 provided the first geophysical (aeromagnetic) data for the sedimentary thickness and configuration of the basement in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Krishnan and Swaminath 15 proposed that the great Vindhyan basin must be extended into the Lesser Himalayan region. Sengupta 16 using the aeromagnetic data subdivided the Ganga basin into four parts separated by basement ridges or faults or both (Fig.  1 b). Based on a re-interpretation of earlier gravity data, Sengupta 17 (1964) correlated the evolution of the Himalaya with the subcrustal movements below the Gangetic plains. The Oil and Natural Gas Commission, based on geophysical surveys (aeromagnetic, gravity, and seismic) and drilling data, in 1968 identified the three ridges in the Ganga basin named (from east to west) as Munger-Saharsa ridge, Faizabad ridge and Delhi-Hardwar Ridge (DHR) (Fig.  1 b). Valdiya 18 correlated the transverse structures in the Himalaya to these three hidden basement ridges. The western boundary of the Ganga basin is delineated by DHR and the eastern margin by the northeastward continuation of the buried basement ridge (Munger-Saharsa ridge) 2 . The DHR was proposed with the least areal extent (6000 sq km) among all three ridges. Sastri et al. 2 and Karunakaran and Ranga Rao 19 described the shallow character of the DHR. The ridge was not traced with seismic survey beyond Meerut; ‘the trend is probably obscured by a thick Neogene cover’ 6 .

Based on magnetic survey, Arora et al. 20 proposed a major conductive structure, namely, the Trans Himalayan conductor (THC), that strikes perpendicular to the Ganga basin into the foothills of the Himalaya and located east of Delhi (Fig.  2 ). Later, through a magnetic survey, Arora and Mahashabde 21 characterized the THC as a major electrical conductive structure (having a resistivity of 2 Ohm.m) with a width of 45 km and depth of 15 km following the strike of the Aravalli range and running into the Himalaya (Fig.  2 ).

figure 2

Tectonic map of the Delhi region with the Trans- Himalayan Conductor (THC) superimposed on it. The earthquakes with magnitude M > 3.0 from 2001 to 10th June 2020 are plotted (stars) from the earthquake catalog prepared by NCS, New Delhi. Major tectonic features of the Himalaya; Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Main Central Thrust (MCT) and Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) are shown along with the regional tectonic features including Mahendragarh–Dehradun Fault (MDF), Delhi–Hardwar Ridge (DHR), Moradabad Fault (MF), Sohna Fault (SF), Mathura Fault (MTF) and Great Boundary Fault (GBF). The fault plane solutions of the four past earthquakes are shown with black & white beach balls prepared from and the recent (12th April 2020, 10th May 2020 and 29th May 2020) earthquakes are shown with red & white beach balls. The stations used for computation of fault plane solutions are shown with black triangles and station numbers (1:NDI; 2:NRLA; 3: LDR; 4:JMIU; 5:BISR; 6:AYAN; 7:UJWA; 8:JHJR; 9:SONA; 10:KUDL). The tectonic features are from the files provided at BHUKOSH portal of Geological Survey of India ( http://bhukosh.gsi.gov.in/Bhukosh/MapViewer.aspx ). These features are overlapped on SRTM data of 90 m resolution ( http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org ). The figure is prepared using Generic Mapping Tools version 4.4.0 3 .

Mallick et al. 22 , following the study of Raiverman et al. 23 , have suggested a deep-seated fault along the course of the Yamuna River formed by the flexure of the Indian Plate due to subduction beneath the Himalaya. Valdiya 24 and Chandra 25 have also indicated a fault zone along the strike of Aravallis in this area. By correlating seismicity with the changes in the Coulomb stress, Arora et al. 26 proposed along-strike segmentation of NW Himalaya, controlled by the subsurface ridges (underthrusting the Indian Plate) and by rift and nappe structures. They suggested the episodic reactivation of Delhi-Hardwar Ridge due to the strains resulting from the locking of Indian-Eurasian Plates as proposed by Arora 27 .

Dubey et al. 28 inferred three NW–SE trending reverse faults in the Delhi region using Remote Sensing, Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR), and Bouguer gravity anomaly data. However, due to very limited depth of penetration of GPR survey (a few meters), modern geophysical surveys with a higher depth of penetration (e.g., Magnetotellurics / Seismic) are imminent to verify and precise characterization of these faults. Dubey et al. 28 have also suggested that earthquakes that occurred near Rohtak and have orientation other than MDF (i.e. NE-SW) might be related to lithospheric crustal loading of the Himalaya orogeny on the Delhi-Sargoda Ridge. Based on the gravity and aeromagnetic investigations, GSI 29 proposed a NE-SW trending, 295 km long fault linking Indian peninsular craton in the south to Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) in the north along the DHR and named it as MDF. At the junction of MDF and HFT, Jade 30 estimated the convergence rate of 10–18 mm/year between India and Tibet. The information on slip rates along major faults of Delhi region is not available. Patel et al. 31 delineated the shallow steep vertical faults near MDF (though MDF was not traced) using GPR survey and suggested MDF as a normal fault system at shallow subsurface and showing normal with oblique-slip motion.

Ravi Kumar et al. 32 published the Bouguer anomaly map of North India including the Ganga basin using well-controlled ground data and inferred that the Aravalli Delhi Mobile Belt (ADMB) and its marginal faults extend to the Western Himalayan front via Delhi where it interacts with the Delhi–Lahore ridge and further north with the Himalayan front causing seismic activity. Godin and Harris 33 , using Bouger gravity data of Delhi region derived from Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) 2008 have suggested that NE Delhi–Hardwar trend continues northeastward across the surface trace of the Main Frontal Thrust to the Karakoram fault. They further suggested that the DHR is delimited by the Shimla and Dehradun lineaments and proposed it as a horst with steeply-dipping normal faults on either side (Fig.  3 ). The Dehradun lineament connects the eastern edge of the Delhi–Hardwar Ridge to the Burang graben north of Shimla, the westernmost N–S graben of southern Tibet.

figure 3

Bouguer gravity map (in Gal) of Delhi region with lineament interpretation and dip directions (modified after Goddin and Harris 39 Harris 33 ).

Dwivedi et al. 34 , through 3D structural inversion of gravity data (from Gravity Map (WGM)-2012 and gravity map series of India-2006 (GSI-NGRI, 2006)), speculated that NE trending Delhi Fold Belt deflected westward towards the shallower DSR and produce clustered seismicity in the hinge zone of this crustal bending near the Delhi region. They suggested that it is happening due to development of high strain resulting from crustal buckling of Delhi Fold Belt and DSR. They opined that the structural setup possibly developed after NW corner indentation and anti-clockwise rotation of Indian plate (post-Eocene collision) (as proposed by Voo et al. 35 ) led to the westward deflection of NE trending Delhi Fold Belt. In addition to geophysical and geological studies, the seismological studies have a special contribution in understanding the subsurface structures and seismotectonics of the region.

Seismic monitoring in Delhi region

Among the far-field moderate to large earthquakes (1803 GK, 1991 UKS, 1999 CHM, 2015 GRK) experienced in the Delhi region from Himalayan sources, the earthquake of 1st September 1803 (1803 GH) is considered to be important as damage was observed in Delhi and its surrounding region. Different locations were proposed for this earthquake. Initially, this earthquake was considered as the 1803 Mathura earthquake (M 6.8) 10 , 36 , 37 . Later, it was studied in detail 38 , 39 and suggested renaming the event as the 1803 Garhwal earthquake.

As mentioned in the preceding section, the Delhi region has also experienced near-field earthquakes from the local sources [Historical earthquake of Delhi (M6.5, 1720); Bulandshahar earthquake (M 6.7, 1956); and Gurgaon earthquake (M 4.8, 1960)] (locations given in Fig.  1 b and Supplementary Table 2). The intensity of the 1720 Delhi earthquake was assessed as IX in the Old Delhi area. Though the exact epicenter of this event is uncertain; it was in the vicinity of Delhi 40 . The 1956 Bulandshahar earthquake was felt over a larger area and deaths as well as destruction to property were reported. The 1960 Gurgaon earthquake (M4.8) is the closest instrumentally located event to the Delhi region, though the location and magnitude were debated (Supplementary Table 2).

Seismic instrumentation in the Delhi region started in 1960 by India Meteorological Department (IMD) and initially, an analog seismological observatory was installed at Delhi Ridge. This observatory was later upgraded to the World-Wide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) standard in 1963 41 . The seismograph installed at the observatory recorded a large number of microtremors including, those originated from Sonipat area (about 50 km NW of Delhi) (Fig.  2 ) during the swarm activity of the Sonipat-Rohtak area (NW of Delhi) in 1963–65. The seismicity during swarm activity of 1963–65 was found to be concentrated in three clusters, namely, west of Delhi, near Sonipat, and close to Rohtak 42 , 43 . An analog observatory was established at Lodi Road area in the southern part of Delhi (Fig.  2 , given with label no. 3 having code LDR) in 1964. Later, in 1974, analog seismological observatories were installed at three other locations, Rohtak, Sohna and Meerut adjoining Delhi. On 28 July 1994, an event of magnitude M4.0 was recorded in Delhi and reported to have caused damage to one of the minarets of Jama Masjid 44 . In year 2000–2001, 16 stations (12 stations with single component and four stations with three-component seismographs) VSAT based Digital Seismic Telemetry Network was established for close monitoring of earthquake activity in Delhi region. Nine field stations in Digital Seismic Telemetry Network were deployed within a radius of 80 km of Delhi. The two earthquakes of magnitudes M4.0 and M3.8 that occurred on 28.02.2001 and 28.04.2001, respectively, in Delhi region were recorded by the DTSN.

The second swarm activity in the Jind area (~ 80 km NW of Sonipat and ~ 130 km NW to Delhi (Fig.  2 ) occurred during the period December 2003–January 2004 and observed in two clusters. This swarm activity was characterized by 152 tremors, out of which 62 events were of magnitude (ML) range 0.5–3.4 45 . Shukla et al. 46 correlated the seismicity clusters with the NW–SE trending Delhi Sargoda ridge (DSR).

All the 16 stations of Delhi Seismic Telemetry Network were upgraded, and 9 new stations were installed during 2015–2018 in and around Delhi. These stations are equipped with VSAT for receiving data in real time at the National Center for Seismology (NCS), New Delhi. Presently these stations are integrated with the National Seismological Network, which is now a state-of- the-art network with 115 broadband, three-component seismographs spread across the entire country and has real-time data reception from field stations to Central Receiving Station (CRS) in New Delhi. The data are analyzed in CRS and the information is disseminated for follow-up actions.

From the analysis of past data, it is observed that 122 earthquakes of magnitude M ≥ 3.0 including, eight earthquakes with magnitude M ≥ 4 (with the largest earthquake of M4.9 on 05th March 2012) occurred in Delhi region during January-2001 to 10thJune 2020 (Supplementary Fig. 1a). The depth distribution of the events is shown in Supplementary Fig. 1b. Focal depths generally lie within 15 km from the surface (with a depth uncertainty of ~ 2–4 km) with only about 10% events being deeper than 15 km (Supplementary Fig. 1b). In recent years, M4.9 March 2012, M4.6 September 2016, and M4.6, June 2017 earthquakes are the significant local earthquakes recorded in the Delhi region.

Richter 47 , studied the seismotectonics of the Delhi region and suggested that the region east of Delhi may be associated with the block faulting. Chouhan 42 studied the seismicity of Delhi using 74 earthquakes of magnitude ≥ 2.0 (for a period between 1962 to 1972) and suggested that most of the seismically active areas lie at the junction of Delhi-Hardwar Ridge, the Lahore-Delhi ridge (DSR) and the axis of Delhi Fold Belt. Molnar et al. 4 studied the 10th October 1956 Bulandshahr earthquake (located east of DHR) and suggested the fault plane solution as normal faulting focal mechanism. Chouhan 42 has also estimated the fault plane solution of October 10, 1956, and August 15, 1966, earthquakes occurred near Bulandsahar and Moradabad, respectively (both falls in the east to DHR) and suggested a steep dip, strike-slip with small normal component faulting.

Shukla et al. 46 used first-motion data recorded by the Delhi Telemetry Seismic Network (between 2001–2004) to determine the focal mechanism of small 19 local earthquakes and suggested the thrust with the strike-slip focal mechanism. They also associated seven earthquakes with MDF and proposed a reverse fault mechanism on a steeply dipping plane (Dip 60 o to 85°). They further proposed MDF as a strike-slip fault and reactivated as “thrust” with strike-slip component ‘in the imparted tectonic domain of back thrust’. The statement seems contradictory as the fault plane solution estimated by them suggested a steep dip (of 64 o to 85°).

Bansal et al. 5 estimated the source characteristics (including depth and focal mechanism) of the two earthquakes (28th April 2001 and 18th March 2004) in Delhi and provided valuable new information. The focal mechanism of the earthquakes have shown normal faulting with a large strike-slip component (having Dip of 64 o to 85°) (Fig.  2 ) with one of the nodal planes in NE–SW direction. Singh et al. 6 also analyzed the 25th November 2007 (Mw 4.1) earthquake in detail and given the strike-slip faulting with some normal component mechanism (having dip of 55° to 86°) (Fig.  2 ). Shukla et al. 46 used 6 to 10 first motions for estimating the focal mechanism of small-magnitude earthquakes which are insufficient/ and are often difficult to read and focal mechanisms may not be well-constrained 5 . Though Singh et al. 6 emphasized that the focal mechanism estimated by Bansal et al. 5 through well recorded data from Digital Strong Motion Network of Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee is reliable.

Fault plane solutions and structural trends

Recently, three earthquakes occurred on 12th April, 10th May and 29th May 2020 were recorded by the more than 22 stations of the National Seismological Network (NSN), distributed in the northern part of India. The fault plane solution (FPS) of the event of 12thApril 2020 event has been estimated by Pandey et al. 48 . The NSN has also reported two more earthquakes of M>3.0 on 29th May 2011 and 01st June 2017. The fault plane solutions of these four events (29th May 2011, 01st June 2017, 10th May 2020 and 29th May 2020) are determined in the present work using the ISOLA software package 49 and given in Table 1 along with the FPS of 12th April 2020 determined by Pandey et al. 48 . Only those stations with cut-off signal to noise ratio >2 in the frequency range of interest are used for estimation of fault plane solutions of these events (Fig. 2 ). The computational details are given in Supplementary data.

The FPS of 12th April 2020 shows two nodal planes striking at 13° and 253° with a dip of 55° each. The two nodal planes show rake of -135 (normal right lateral oblique) and -45 (normal left-lateral oblique) with dominant normal fault mechanism (Table 1 ). The FPS of 10th May 2020 shows two nodal planes striking 32° and 275° with a dip of 75° and 31 o each. The two nodal planes show rake of -117 (normal right lateral oblique) and -31 (normal left-lateral oblique) with dominant normal fault mechanism (Table 1 ). The second nodal planes of both these earthquakes have suggested the strike of 253° and 275° (Table 1 ), respectively, which are not consistent with either the trend of Aravalli belt (NNE-SSW) or with the trend of major fault lines (NNE-SSW to N-S) in the region (Fig.  2 ). Therefore, the nodal planes with strikes of 13° and 32° that are consistent with the Aravalli and major tectonic trends and are considered.

The FPS of 29th May 2020 shows two nodal planes striking at 10° and 124° with a dip of 37° and 73 o each. The two nodal planes show rake of -123 (normal right lateral oblique) and -29 (normal left-lateral oblique) with dominant normal fault mechanism (Table 1 ). Both of the fault plane solutions have suggested a causative fault trending NNE-SSW direction with a steep dip to the NE. The earthquake of 29th May 2020 which occurred ~ 34 km west of the India Gate area of New Delhi (or ~ 18 km east of Rohtak) falls close to MDF.

The FPS of 29th May 2011 shows two nodal planes striking at 236° and 52° with a dip of 41 o and 50 o each. The two nodal planes show rake of 94 (reverse) and 87 (reverse) with dominant reverse fault mechanism (Table 1 ). The FPS of 01st June 2017 shows two nodal planes striking at 264° and 171° with a dip of 83 o and 59 o each. The two nodal planes show rake of 31 (reverse left-lateral oblique) and 172 (right-lateral strike-slip) with dominant reverse fault mechanism (Table 1 ). Both these earthquakes (29th May 2011 and 01st June 2017) were located close to DSR (~18 km and ~07 km west of MDF, respectively).

An earthquake of magnitude M4.9 was occurred on 5th March 2012 about 20 km south-west of this earthquake. Bansal and Verma 50 proposed a strike of N348 o and a dip of 48° with a rake of 131° (strike slip motion with reverse component) for this earthquake. The earthquake was located ~ 4 km west of the MDF. The estimated fault plane solution has suggested a NNW-SSE trending reverse fault; therefore, it may not be strictly associated with the MDF. Therefore, it is inferred that the earthquakes occurring to the east of DHR/MDF are following the normal with strike slip mechanism and the earthquakes located to the west of DHR/MDF follows the reverse with strike-slip mechanism.

Further, the earthquakes of 12th April 2020 and 10th May 2020 are located to the east of the DHR and south-western edge of the Trans Himalayan Conductor (THC) proposed by Arora et al. 19 (Fig.  2 ). FPS of both the recent earthquakes have shown strike of NNE and steep dip of 55°-75° that are commensurate with the geometry of the edge of THC (Fig.  2 ). The depth of ~ 15 km has been estimated for both these events. Therefore, both the recent earthquakes (12th April 2020 and 10th May 2020) might be nucleated at the southwestern edge of the THC.

Distribution of strain energy in Delhi region

The energy is a direct indicator of the size of an earthquake and estimation of the accumulated energy in a region can provide valuable information regarding the potential seismic hazard of the region. The spatial variation of energy release can provide information on the potential locales of stress accumulation in a region in the absence of geodetic data. Similarly, the temporal variation of seismic energy of a region can provide the different stages of energy release process 42 , 51 and could be used as a long-term earthquake precursor. In the present study, the spatial distribution of strain energy has been estimated for Delhi and the surrounding areas based on the earthquake catalog of the region for the period 1998-2020 taken from the website of National Centre for Seismology ( https://seismo.gov.in/content/seismological-data ). Earthquakes with magnitude range between M0.8 and M5.1 have been considered. The computational details are given in Supplementary material.

The spatial distribution of strain energy estimated in the Delhi region has been shown in Fig. 4 . The maximum energy, in the range of 08*10 11 Joule has been released in this period in the Delhi region. The energy is released mainly in two areas, (i) the area west of DHR/MDF, and (ii) the area east of the DHR (central and NW Delhi). Almost twice the amount of energy has been released in the western part (at the contact zone of DHR and DSR), compared to the eastern part (east of DHR).

figure 4

Distribution of estimated seismic energy release from earthquakes during 1998-April 2020 in the Delhi region considering a 0.3° × 0.3° grid. The tectonic features are from the files provided at BHUKOSH portal of the Geological Survey of India ( http://bhukosh.gsi.gov.in/Bhukosh/MapViewer.aspx ).

During an earthquake, the normal faulting is caused by the gravitational potential, however in case of reverse and strike slip fault, the energy is accumulated as elastic potential. The rocks get deformed under compression, are characterized by yield stresses about 10 times larger than yield stresses in tensional stress fields 52 . Additionally, reverse faults need more energy to move the rocks as compared to thrust in case of reverse fault, the hanging wall moves against gravity. Therefore, the energy dissipation in reverse fault is always more than the thrust and normal faulting. In Delhi region we infer the reverse faulting in the western part of DHR-MDF and normal faulting in the eastern part.

Proposed seismotectonic model

In general understanding, a seismotectonic model suggests the correlation of seismicity with the fault lines of the area and the slip rates along these faults. Delhi area is, however, under-represented in geodetic studies as the GPS network is to be established and no study on Active fault mapping is available along the major faults to confirm slip/slip rates. Taking advantage of the quality data generated by the local seismological network, we propose a seismotectonic model of the Delhi region through the integration of seismicity characteristics, the associated structural features and the estimates of strain energy released in the region. From subsurface structural appraisal, it is inferred that the MDF/DHR follows the trend of Aravalli Delhi Mobile Belt and is a NE-SW trending horst structure with steep normal faulting that continues northeastward across the surface trace of the Main Frontal Thrust to the Karakoram fault. The past seismological studies 4 , 5 , 6 , 5 have also suggested normal with a strike-slip focal mechanism in the area east of DHR/ MDF. The focal mechanisms of three recent earthquakes (M 3.5, 12th April 2020 and M3.4, 10th May 2020 and M 4.4, 29th May 2020) to the east of DHR/MDF have also shown normal with strike-slip focal mechanism. The energy released in the last two decades also indicates a similar focal mechanism. Shukla 46 through FPS of 10 earthquakes (of 2001–2004, with single component seismographs) and Bansal and Verma 51 through FPS of 01 earthquake recorded with digital strong motion data have suggested DSR, bounded by reverse fault/thrust is an NW–SE trending structure. The fault plane solutions of the two earthquakes (29th May 2011 and 01st June 2017) fallen close to DSR have also shown reverse/thrust faulting with strike slip mechanism. The DSR appears to interact with the DHR in the west of Delhi (Fig.  5 a,c). The interaction zone of DHR/MDF and DSR is seismically most active in last two decades (Fig.  2 ). The scattered and mostly shallow focus seismic activity in the region is inferred to be associated with the presence of faults that got activated time and again due to transfer of stress from the interaction zone of DHR-MDF and DSR. The seismotectonic constraints are presented in the form of a model in Fig.  5 .

figure 5

( a ) Proposed earthquake mechanism model (unscaled)of the Delhi region, ( b ) planer close view of the earthquake process and ( c ) east facing view of the earthquake process of the Delhi region. DSR Delhi Sargoda Ridge, MDF Mahendragarh-Dehradun Fault, and DHR Delhi Hardwar Ridge. The black and white beach balls correspond to past earthquakes and red & white beach balls show the mechanisms of the recent earthquakes of 12th April 2020 and 10th May 2020.

We have also examined the possibility of THC as the causative structure of two recent earthquakes, M3.5, 12th April 2020 and M3.4, 10th May 2020. Due to high conductivity, the THC might be filled with mantle derived fluid and is ductile in nature. Hence it may not allow large accumulation of strain. Therefore, the strain can be accumulated on both lateral edges of the THC (Fig.  2 ). Since the FPS of two recent earthquakes (of M3.5, 12th April 2020 and M3.4, 10th May 2020) has shown strike of 13–32°, i.e., NNE, and steep dip of 55°-75 o to the NE, we reject the possibility of THC as a causative structure in those cases.

Discussion and conclusions

The densely populated, socio-economically important, housing national capital, the Delhi region has been experiencing earthquakes from both regional (Himalayan) and local sources. The seismicity due to local earthquakes, although not associated with significant damage to property, has created panic among the public in the epicentral areas. The estimation of focal mechanism of recently occurred earthquakes of 12th April 2020 (M3.5) and 10th May 2020, (M3.4) and 29th May 2020 (M4.4), the spatial distribution of energy in the Delhi region in last two decades and appraisal of local sources (geological, geophysical, and seismological) have been integrated to understand the causative structural sources and mechanism of seismicity in the Delhi region. The fault plane solutions of these three earthquakes have suggested a nodal plane trending NNE-SSW direction with a steep dip of 37° to 75° in the NE direction and normal with strike-slip mechanism.

Our analysis on appraisal of subsurface structures of the region suggests three probable major earthquake mechanisms in the Delhi region: (i) episodic reactivation of DHR due to the strains resulting from the locking of Indian-Eurasian plate, (ii) lithospheric crustal loading of the Himalayan orogen on the Delhi-Sargoda Ridge, (iii) interaction of Aravalli Delhi Mobile Belt with Delhi–Lahore Ridge and further north with the Himalayan front.

Since the year 2000, low level seismicity has been observed in the northern part of the Delhi within the zone of interaction of DHR and Himalayan Frontal Thrust. Therefore, the seismic potential of minor to moderate earthquakes cannot be ruled out due to transfer of stress from the intersection zone (of DHR and Himalayan Frontal Thrust) through DHR. A simplified subsurface mechanism of seismicity in the Delhi region has also been proposed in the current study. We believe that the proposed seismotectonic model will serve as a starting model for future studies. NCS has already planned to enhance the local seismic network in the region to help in precise location of smaller events and constraining their focal depths accurately. Also, other investigations such as active fault mapping and subsurface imaging, which are in pipeline would help in refining and strengthening the proposed model.

The seismological investigations, energy estimation and appraisal of subsurface structures have led to the following major results: (i) Two major ridges (DHR and DSR) are interacting in the west of Delhi NCT; DSR is bounded by thrust/ reverse faulting and DHR is a steep horst structure associated with normal faulting, (ii) The earthquake in the Delhi region have occurred in two major clusters in last two decades; each is located west and east to DHR/ MDF, (iii) Higher seismic energy (almost two times) has been released in the western cluster located west to Delhi as compared to eastern cluster, (iv) two major structural/ fault mechanisms in the region have been recognized-thrust/ reverse with strike slip mechanism in the western part and normal with strike slip mechanism in the eastern part due to the presence of DHR/ MDF associated with steep normal faulting in the east and presence of DSR bounded by thrust in the west, respectively, and (v) The scattered shallow seismicity in the region is inferred to be due to stress transfer from interaction zone of two ridges (DHR and DSR) to the nearby faults.

The earthquakes occurred on 10th May (M3.4), 29th May 2020 (M 4.4), 29th May 2011 and 01st June 2017 are recorded up to 32 broad band seismometers. The events were located using the Seisan software package 53 maintaining a small root mean square error (rms) of 0.27 to 0.5, respectively using the data of the stations having good signal to noise ratio. The fault plane solutions (FPS) of these events have been determined using 12 local stations waveform data (NPL, AYAN, JHJR, KUDL, SONA, UJWA, GNR, JMIU, KKR, NRLA, NDI and BISR) (Fig.  2 ). The ISOLA software package has been used to determine the FPS. A correlation coefficient (between the observed and synthetic data) of > 0.5 and the double couple percentage (DC %) of > 50% in the moment tensor decomposition have been considered for finalizing the FPS (For details see supplementary data). Addionally, we also determined the Fault Plane Solutions of the events using first motion data (supplementary Figs. 6 and 7). In this exercise, FOCMAC subroutine in SEISAN software package has been used. In all cases FPS obtained by first motion polarity are consistent (in terms of fault mechanism) with the FPS obtained by waveform inversion technique. However, strike, dip and rake values are found to be different but agreed closely with the data derived by waveform inversion. The strain energy has been estimated for Delhi region using the standard formulation suggested by Kanamori 54 to examine its spatial distribution. The earthquake catalog of the Delhi region for the period of 1998–2020 was used for the purpose (For details see supplementary data). The FPS computed in the present study have been compared with the earlier FPS in Delhi region to help in refining the current understanding of subsurface structural trends. The past works on geophysical, geological and seismological studies have been reviewed and a link between trends suggested by the FPS, energy estimation and the subsurface structures has been established.

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Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the National Centre for Seismology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, New Delhi for providing the seismological data. Suggestions offered by S. Roy and B.R. Arora have helped in improving the MS considerably. The consistent encouragement and support received from Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences has made it possible to take up the study.

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Bansal, B.K., Mohan, K., Verma, M. et al. A holistic seismotectonic model of Delhi region. Sci Rep 11 , 13818 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-93291-9

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Seismic Microzonation of Indian Megacities: A Case Study of NCR Delhi

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India’s high earthquake risk and vulnerability is evident from the fact that about 59 % of India’s land area could face moderate to severe earthquakes. North India and particularly the Himalayan belt have experienced many strong to moderate earthquakes since eighteenth century. Some of the major earthquakes in past are having the magnitude more than 7.0 M W . The present study focuses the progressive modifications on the National seismic zonation map of India officially by National agencies, other individual studies and by International Program and summarizes the seismic microzonation work performed for some of the strategic important mega cities in India. This study also analyzes the systematic development of zonation maps and various methods adopted. It has been found that the different techniques have been adopted for microzonation studies of major mega cities. The detailed methodology for Microzonation of National Capital Region of Delhi (NCR of Delhi) has been presented as a case study which emphases on the improvement of these techniques for better use in the future.

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Rao, K.S., Rathod, G.W. Seismic Microzonation of Indian Megacities: A Case Study of NCR Delhi. Indian Geotech J 44 , 132–148 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-013-0084-0

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recent earthquake case study in india

Massive tremors in Delhi, neighbouring areas after 6.2 earthquake in Nepal

Strong earthquake tremors were felt in several parts of northern india, including delhi-ncr, punjab and haryana today. four quakes -- the highest being 6.2 magnitude -- originated in nepal..

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Earthquake

Strong tremors were felt in several parts of northern India, including Delhi and its surrounding areas, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, on Tuesday afternoon after a 6.2 magnitude earthquake struck western Nepal.

(Source: The first earthquake tremor. @NCS_Earthquake)

Earlier, Frank Hoogerbeets, a Dutch researcher who had predicted the devastating earthquakes that hit Turkiye and Syria earlier this year, posted on X about the probability of a quake that could originate near Pakistan . His tweet came on Monday.

"On September 30, we recorded atmospheric fluctuations that included parts of and near Pakistan. This is correct. It can be an indicator of an upcoming stronger tremor (as was the case with Morocco). But we cannot say with certainty that it will happen," the scientist, who is renowned for his earthquake predictions based on celestial alignments, wrote on X.

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recent earthquake case study in india

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Bhuj Earthquake in India – A study by CEAI CEAI December 23, 2021 INDUSTRY NEWS 0   Bhuj Earthquake in India – A study by CEAI

On the morning of India’s Republic Day, January 26, 2001, an earthquake devastated the town of Bhuj, and its effects were felt throughout northwestern India and some parts of Pakistan. This earthquake, measuring 7.9 on the Richter scale, killed 20,000 people and injured over 150,000 more. It was the most powerful earthquake recorded in India since August 15, 1950, with a Richter scale magnitude of 8.5.

The earthquake wreaked havoc in a number of cities, including Ahmedabad, Rajkot, and Jamnagar. The majority of the injured people became disabled for the rest of their lives. The earthquake claimed the lives of 7,065 children among those who died (0-14 years old). Aside from casualties, the earthquake had a significant impact on human life, GDP, social situation, and businesses. The disaster caused a massive loss, amounting to Rs. 144 billion in monetary terms. Another Rs. 106 billion was spent on reconstruction. These have had a multiplicity of effects on human life. There was a lack of medical assistance, as well as an inadequate food.

Disaster losses:

The impact of this earthquake has resulted in losses of various elements and sectors, including revenue downfall, loss estimates, and inventory loss.

Because Bhuj is not likely to be considered an earthquake-prone region, the buildings were not built to withstand such natural disasters. As a result of this incident, there was no inventory of buildings left, which resulted in higher reconstruction costs than anticipated.

Social impact:

There were negative social consequences in addition to the fiscal and construction inventory losses. Eighty percent of water and food sources were destroyed, resulting in looting and violence that had a significant impact on people. The earthquake destroyed the homes of 2 million people, leaving them homeless at the end of the incident, which disrupted the social balance.

Demographic impact:

On average, there were around 7065 deaths of children aged 0-14 years, and 9110 deaths of women. There were 348 orphans and 826 widows among the children and women who died. This had an effect on demographics as well as the labor market. There was an imbalance in the worker ratio due to an increase in the number of fatalities among women.

The Bhuj Earthquake had a significant impact in many ways, and it has taken a tremendous amount of effort to return things to normal. Human lives, labor, businesses, social structures, education, and even the basic food supply were all affected. During this time, the government, health care, rescue operation task force, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) made significant efforts by providing assistance, relief funds, and support.

Steps taken to prevent incident like Bhuj Earthquake - A study by Consulting Engineers Association of India

Steps taken to prevent such an incident:

The Bhuj earthquake had caused an unbearable damage in the region of Gujarat. After this, it became inevitable to cover up the losses as well as build safety measures for any such unforeseen circumstance. Along with several initiatives the government took, certain norms were put in place.

The new city which was built in a way where it could face such a challenge without causing a great amount of destruction yet again.

New base Isolation Technology:

The Rs. I00 crore general hospital in Bhuj was rebuilt using base-isolation technology. The lead-rubber bearings (act as shock absorbers) were used to isolate and protect structures during earthquakes.

No multistory buildings:

This technology was hence difficult to be used for all the residential and commercial buildings’ construction. To prevent such an incident from happening, new building was constructed with not more than a single storied building. Not a single building has a permit to go above 7.5m in height. Even if it is a commercial building or a residential one. This led to the city being spread out more horizontally across the region.

Wider road network:

A new network of roads was built which is at least 9m wide and 7-7.5m wide for internal roads which earlier was hardly 2.5-3m wide – which made the rescue and relief a nightmare during the incident.

Way forward after incident of Bhuj Earthquake in India - A study by Consulting Engineers Association of India

The National Building Code of India (NBC) was subsequently revised 2005, by lesson leant by this destruction of Bhuj Earthquake. Also, the revision was necessary to address due to large scale changes in the building construction activities.

Further even with the prevalence of high rises and mixed occupancies, greater reliance and complexity of building services, development of new/innovative construction materials and technologies, increased need for environmental preservation, and recognition of the need for planned management of existing buildings and built environment, there has been a paradigm shift in the building construction scenario. Taking these factors into account and to reduce earthquakes impact on buildings, a Project for Comprehensive Revision of the National Building Code (NBC) was launched under the auspices of the National Building Code Sectional Committee, and as a result of this Project, the revised NBC was released as the National Building Code of India 2016 (NBC). The Code was revised once more as NBC 2016 and was formally released on March 15, 2017.

Are you a consulting engineer? Then, you might want to visit the  CEAI official website  for more such insightful information.

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Worlddata.info

Earthquakes in India

Severe earthquake on february 19th, most recent events.

Recent earthquakes in India

  • Feb. 21, 1:06 pm Magnitude 4.9: 38 km west of Hakha (Chin) at a depth of 72.27 km.
  • Feb. 20, 6:36 am Magnitude 4.3: 30 km south of Padam (Kashmir) at a depth of ten km.
  • Feb. 19, 9:35 pm Magnitude 5.2: 68 km southwest of Gilgit at a depth of 44.76 km.
  • Feb. 17, 9:25 am Magnitude 4.7: 38 km northwest of Hakha (Chin) at a depth of 76.00 km.

Earthquakes in India since 1950

Affected earthquake regions in India

recent earthquake case study in india

Earthquakes in India, Types, Zones, Causes, Impacts, Latest Updates

A powerful 5.6 magnitude earthquake originating in Nepal on 6th Nov 2023 felt massive tremors in Delhi-NCR region. Know all about Earthquakes in India and Latest Updates here.

Earthquakes in India

Table of Contents

Earthquake in Nepal and Delhi: Latest Update

Another earthquake of magnitude 5.6 on the Richter scale hit Nepal on the 6th of November 2023 evening as the Himalayan nation recovered from the deadly November 3 earthquake that killed 153 people. This is the 3rd earthquake that has struck Nepal in the last four days. Tremors were also felt in parts of northern India, including the Delhi-NCR region.

Earthquake in Nepal: Nepal earthquake: A 6.4 magnitude earthquake struck Nepal’s Lamidanda area in the Jajarkot district, causing strong tremors that were felt in various northern Indian cities, including the Delhi-NCR region, around 11.30 pm. The earthquake had a depth of 10 km, occurring at a latitude of 28.84 N and a longitude of 82.19 E. This marks the third significant quake in Nepal within a month.

Earthquake in North India: The seismic activity extended to North India, including Delhi, Noida, Gurugram, and Bihar, where residents experienced strong tremors. However, local officials initially reported no injuries or significant damage in these areas.

Delhi Earthquake: In Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR), residents felt intense tremors, prompting them to evacuate their homes. The earthquake caused buildings in the national capital to shake. Remarkably, this marks the third occurrence of powerful earthquakes in Nepal within a month.

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Massive Earthquake Tremors Felt in Delhi-NCR: Last Month

A powerful 6.2 magnitude earthquake originating in neighbouring Nepal sent massive tremors through Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR). The National Centre for Seismology identified the epicentre of this seismic event as being located in Nepal, and it occurred on October 3, 2023, at 14:51:04 IST.

The earthquake had a depth of 5 kilometres and was centred at Lat: 29.39 and Long: 81.23, as reported by the National Centre for Seismology. Reports indicate that the earthquake was not confined to Delhi and the NCR; tremors were also felt in various areas of Uttar Pradesh, including Lucknow, Hapur, and Amroha. This event has generated widespread concern and attention due to its significant magnitude and the widespread impact it has had on the region.

Earthquakes in India

An earthquake is just the shaking of the ground. It happens naturally. It happens as a result of energy being released, which makes waves move in all directions. When an earthquake occurs, the Earth vibrates, producing seismic waves that are detected by seismographs.

Every day, moderate-sized earthquakes take place. On the other hand, powerful tremors that inflict extensive destruction are less frequent. Around plate boundaries, particularly along convergent boundaries, earthquakes are more frequent. More earthquakes occur in the area of India where the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate clash. Consider the Himalayan region, for instance.

India’s peninsular region is thought to be a stable area. On occasion, though, earthquakes are felt on the edges of smaller plates. The 1967 Koyna earthquake and the 1993 Latur earthquake are two examples of earthquakes that occurred in peninsular areas. Indian seismologists have divided India into four seismic zones: Zone II, Zone III, Zone IV, and Zone V.

As can be seen, zones V and IV are assigned to the entire Himalayan region as well as the states of North-East India, Western and Northern Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and portions of Gujarat. A significant chunk of the peninsular region is in the low-risk zone, while the northern lowlands and western coastal regions continue to be in the moderate hazard zone.

Read about: Component of Environment

Types of Indian Earthquakes

Tectonic earthquakes.

The movement of loose, broken bits of land on the earth’s crust known as tectonic plates is what causes the most frequent type of earthquake.

Volcanic Earthquake

These earthquakes, which are less frequent than the tectonic variety, take place prior to or following a volcanic eruption. It happens when rocks that are forced to the surface mix with magma that is erupting from the volcano.

Collapse Earthquake

In subterranean mines, there is an earthquake. The pressure created inside the rocks is the primary cause.

Explosion Earthquakes

This kind of earthquake doesn’t naturally occur. The main culprit is a high-density explosion, such as a nuclear explosion.

Earthquake Zones in India

Here’s a complete List of All Zones of Earthquakes in India:

The zones are distinguished using Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity, which evaluates the impact of earthquakes. However, the seismic zoning map was updated following the Killari earthquake in Maharashtra in 1993, merging the low danger zone, or Seismic Zone I, with Seismic Zone II. Zone I is therefore excluded from the mapping.

It falls under the low-intensity category. It covers 40.93% of the nation’s land area. Along with the Karnataka Plateau, it also encompasses the peninsula region.

This region is moderately intense. It covers 30.79 per cent of the nation’s area. The state is made up of Kerala, Goa, and the Lakshadweep Islands, as well as portions of Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.

A high-intensity zone is what it is called. It covers 17.49% of the land area of the nation. It encompasses the remaining portions of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, Sikkim, the northern portions of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, the western coast of Maharashtra, and Rajasthan.

It falls under the category of an extremely severe zone. It covers 10.79 per cent of the land area of the nation. It also covers a region of North Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Major Earthquakes in India List

Some of the devastating earthquakes have affected India. More than 58.6% of Indian Territory is vulnerable to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity. Some of India’s most significant earthquakes include:

  • Cutch Earthquake (1819) which was 8.3 magnitude
  • Assam Earthquake (1897)
  • Bihar-Nepal Earthquake (1934) of 8.4 magnitude
  • Koyna Earthquake (1967) of 6.5 magnitude
  • Uttarkashi (1991) of 6.6 magnitude
  • Killari (1993) of 6.4 magnitude
  • Bhuj (2001) of 7.7 magnitude
  • Jammu Kashmir (2005)

Read about: Wetlands in India

List of Major Earthquakes in India Year-wise for UPSC

  • 2015 India/Nepal Earthquake
  • 2011 Sikkim Earthquake
  • 2005 Kashmir Earthquake
  • 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake
  • 2001 Bhuj Earthquake
  • 1999 Chamoli Earthquake
  • 1997 Jabalpur Earthquake
  • 1993 Latur Earthquake
  • 1991 Uttarkashi Earthquake
  • 1941 Andaman Islands Earthquake
  • 1975 Kinnaur Earthquake
  • 1967 Koynanagar Earthquake
  • 1956 Anjar Earthquake
  • 1934 Bihar/Nepal Earthquake
  • 1905 Kangra Earthquake

Causes of Earthquakes in India

Avalanches and landslides.

Tremors can cause slope instability and collapse, which can lead to debris falling down the slope and causing landslides, especially in hilly areas. Massive amounts of ice may fall from peaks covered in snow as a result of avalanches brought on by earthquakes. As an illustration, the 2015 Nepal earthquake led to several avalanches on and near Mount Everest.

Landslides and considerable property damage were caused by the Sikkim earthquake of 2011 in particular at the Singik and Upper Teesta hydroelectric projects.

Flash floods and failures of dams and reservoirs could result from the earthquake. Flooding could result from avalanches and slides impeding the river’s flow. The 1950 Assam earthquake produced a barrier in the Dihang River as a result of the buildup of enormous debris, resulting in flash floods in the upstream region.

When an ocean basin is disturbed and a significant amount of water is displaced, waves called tsunamis are created. The seafloor is moved by seismic waves from earthquakes, which can produce large sea waves. On December 26, 2004, an earthquake off the coast of Sumatra caused the Indian Ocean Tsunami.

The Indian plate subducting beneath the Burmese plate is what caused it to happen. Over 2.4 lakh people were killed in the Indian Ocean region and its neighbouring countries. Ten-meter Tsunami waves were produced by an undersea earthquake of magnitude nine during the devastating Tohoku earthquake in Japan in 2011. Due to the destruction of the emergency generators cooling the reactors, a nuclear meltdown occurred, and the radioactive fallout from Fukushima Daiichi became a major global problem.

Impact of Earthquakes in India

Loss of human life and property.

Human towns and structures sustain severe damage and destruction as a result of the ground surface deformation brought on by the earth’s crust’s vertical and horizontal movement. a case in point An analysis of the urban devastation caused by the 2015 Nepal earthquake.

The depth of this 7.8-magnitude earthquake was 8.2 kilometres. The Nepal earthquake claimed many lives as a result of unchecked urban expansion, poorly engineered buildings, and unscientifically designed constructions. Urban areas of Kathmandu were badly devastated, causing 8,000 fatalities and a 10 billion dollar economic loss.

Alterations to the River’s Course

The alteration in the river’s course brought on by the obstruction is one of the earthquake’s significant effects.

Fountains of Mud

Mud and boiling water may surface as a result of the earthquake’s tremendous force. The agricultural field was covered in knee-deep mud following the 1934 Bihar earthquake.

Gas pipelines and electric infrastructure are both harmed by earthquakes. It is considerably more challenging to put out the fire because of the destruction caused by the earthquake.

Mitigation Measures for Earthquakes in India

The national center for seismology.

Governmental organisations receive earthquake monitoring and hazard reports from a department of the Ministry of Earth Sciences. There are three divisions in it: Geophysical Observation System, Earthquake Hazard and Risk Assessment, and Earthquake Monitoring and services.

National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project (NERMP)

Enhancing earthquake mitigation programmes’ non-structural and structural components. It aids in lowering susceptibility in high-risk areas. In the areas with strong seismic activity, necessary risk reduction measures are put in place. The project’s assigned agency, NDMA, has created a detailed project report (DPR).

National Building Code (NBC)

It is a comprehensive building code and a national regulation that sets rules for controlling building construction across the nation. The Planning Commission ordered its first 1970 publication, which was later updated in 1983. Following that, three significant amendments—two in 1987 and the third in 1997—were published. The National Building Code of India 2005 replaces the updated NBC (NBC 2005). Meeting the problems presented by natural disasters and adopting current, applicable international best practises are the key characteristics.

Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC)

It takes on projects for life-line structural retrofitting to raise awareness among the populace and various governmental organisations. It sought to assist the general public and policymakers in particular in their efforts to lessen the vulnerability of the thousands of existing public and private structures.

NDMA Guidelines for Earthquakes

In 2007, the NDMA published its comprehensive earthquake recommendations. The rules specify actions that must be taken by State Governments, Central Ministries, and Departments in order to create disaster management plans with a focus on managing earthquake risk. Six pillars make up the fundamental tenet of these principles:

  • The building of new structures that is earthquake-resistant.
  • Retrofitting and selective seismic strengthening of existing structures.
  • Enforcement and regulation.
  • Preparation and awareness.
  • Building capacity;
  • Emergency reaction.

Biggest Earthquakes in India

The devastating Bhuj earthquake of 2001 took place on January 26, 2001, near the Pakistani border in the Indian state of Gujarat. The largest earthquake in India, measuring 8.6 on the Richter scale, struck the India-China region on August 15, 1950. 1530 people perished as a result of the shifting of tectonic plates at a depth of 30 km.

Earthquake in the Indian Ocean

Since of their resemblance to rapidly rising tides, tsunamis are commonly referred to as tidal waves, but scientists avoid using this phrase because, unlike tides, which are brought about by the gravitational pull of the sun and moon, tsunamis are caused by the displacement of water. The tsunami of 2004 was caused by a massive earthquake that was the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph.

On the Richter scale, it was between 9.1 and 9.3 in magnitude. The faulting persisted for the longest time ever—between 8.3 and 10 minutes. It generated several aftershocks that persisted for up to 3 to 4 months after the initial incident. A significant amount of energy was released as a result of the seismic activity, and the earth is thought to have slightly shifted on its axis.

The earth’s rotation changed as a result of the change in mass and energy released. The earthquake caused the seafloor to rise vertically by many metres, displacing a significant amount of water and resulting in a tsunami. Indonesia was the first country to be affected by the tsunami because of its proximity. Additionally, it saw the most casualties, with about 170,000 people dying.

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Earthquakes in India FAQs

What are the 5 largest earthquake ever recorded in india.

• 1993 Latur Earthquake • 1991 Uttarkashi Earthquake • 1941 Andaman Islands Earthquake • 1975 Kinnaur Earthquake • 1967 Koynanagar Earthquake

Which is the biggest earthquake in India?

The devastating Bhuj earthquake of 2001 took place on January 26, 2001, in the Indian state of Gujarat, close to the Pakistani border.

Which city in India is most prone to earthquake?

• Guwahati • Srinagar • Mumbai • Pune • Kerala • Delhi • Chennai • Kochi • Thiruvananthapuram • Patna

What causes earthquake in India?

The entire Himalayan belt as well as the country’s north-eastern portion is prone to powerful earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 8.0. The Indian plate is moving toward the Eurasian plate at a pace of roughly 50 mm per year, which is the primary cause of earthquakes in these areas.

Which place is safe from earthquake?

Go somewhere open that is far from any trees, telephone poles, or structures. Once outside, crouch low and remain there until the trembling stops. The most hazardous spot to be is close to a building's exterior walls. Frequently, the building's windows, façade, and architectural details are the first to give way.

Was there an earthquake in Delhi?

On November 06, 2023 strong tremors were felt in Delhi and NCR after two earthquakes that has struck Nepal in the last four days.

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Bhuj Earthquake India 2001 – A Complete Study

Bhuj earthquake india.

Bhuj Earthquake India - Aerial View

Gujarat : Disaster on a day of celebration : 51st Republic Day on January 26, 2001

  • 7.9 on the Richter scale.
  • 8.46 AM January 26th 2001
  • 20,800 dead

Basic Facts

  • Earthquake: 8:46am on January 26, 2001
  • Epicenter: Near Bhuj in Gujarat, India
  • Magnitude: 7.9 on the Richter Scale

Geologic Setting

  • Indian Plate Sub ducting beneath Eurasian Plate
  • Continental Drift
  • Convergent Boundary

Specifics of 2001 Quake

Compression Stress between region’s faults

Depth: 16km

Probable Fault: Kachchh Mainland

Fault Type: Reverse Dip-Slip (Thrust Fault)

The earthquake’s epicentre was 20km from Bhuj. A city with a population of 140,000 in 2001. The city is in the region known as the Kutch region. The effects of the earthquake were also felt on the north side of the Pakistan border, in Pakistan 18 people were killed.

Tectonic systems

The earthquake was caused at the convergent plate boundary between the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate boundary. These pushed together and caused the earthquake. However as Bhuj is in an intraplate zone, the earthquake was not expected, this is one of the reasons so many buildings were destroyed – because people did not build to earthquake resistant standards in an area earthquakes were not thought to occur. In addition the Gujarat earthquake is an excellent example of liquefaction, causing buildings to ‘sink’ into the ground which gains a consistency of a liquid due to the frequency of the earthquake.

India : Vulnerability to earthquakes

  • 56% of the total area of the Indian Republic is vulnerable to seismic activity .
  • 12% of the area comes under Zone V (A&N Islands, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, N.E.States, Uttaranchal)
  • 18% area in Zone IV (Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Lakshadweep, Maharashtra, Punjab, Sikkim, Uttaranchal, W. Bengal)
  • 26% area in Zone III (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, W. Bengal)
  • Gujarat: an advanced state on the west coast of India.
  • On 26 January 2001, an earthquake struck the Kutch district of Gujarat at 8.46 am.
  • Epicentre 20 km North East of Bhuj, the headquarter of Kutch.
  • The Indian Meteorological Department estimated the intensity of the earthquake at 6.9 Richter. According to the US Geological Survey, the intensity of the quake was 7.7 Richter.
  • The quake was the worst in India in the last 180 years.

What earthquakes do

  • Casualties: loss of life and injury.
  • Loss of housing.
  • Damage to infrastructure.
  • Disruption of transport and communications.
  • Breakdown of social order.
  • Loss of industrial output.
  • Loss of business.
  • Disruption of marketing systems.
  • The earthquake devastated Kutch. Practically all buildings and structures of Kutch were brought down.
  • Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Jamnagar, Surendaranagar and Patan were heavily damaged.
  • Nearly 19,000 people died. Kutch alone reported more than 17,000 deaths.
  • 1.66 lakh people were injured. Most were handicapped for the rest of their lives.
  • The dead included 7,065 children (0-14 years) and 9,110 women.
  • There were 348 orphans and 826 widows.

Loss classification

Deaths and injuries: demographics and labour markets

Effects on assets and GDP

Effects on fiscal accounts

Financial markets

Disaster loss

  • Initial estimate Rs. 200 billion.
  • Came down to Rs. 144 billion.
  • No inventory of buildings
  • Non-engineered buildings
  • Land and buildings
  • Stocks and flows
  • Reconstruction costs (Rs. 106 billion) and loss estimates (Rs. 99 billion) are different
  • Public good considerations

Human Impact: Tertiary effects

  • Affected 15.9 million people out of 37.8 in the region (in areas such as Bhuj, Bhachau, Anjar, Ganhidham, Rapar)
  • High demand for food, water, and medical care for survivors
  • Humanitarian intervention by groups such as Oxfam: focused on Immediate response and then rehabilitation
  • Of survivors, many require persistent medical attention
  • Region continues to require assistance long after quake has subsided
  • International aid vital to recovery

Social Impacts

Social Impacts

  • 80% of water and food sources were destroyed.
  • The obvious social impacts are that around 20,000 people were killed and near 200,000 were injured.
  • However at the same time, looting and violence occurred following the quake, and this affected many people too.
  • On the other hand, the earthquake resulted in millions of USD in aid, which has since allowed the Bhuj region to rebuild itself and then grow in a way it wouldn’t have done otherwise.
  • The final major social effect was that around 400,000 Indian homes were destroyed resulting in around 2 million people being made homeless immediately following the quake.

Social security and insurance

  • Ex gratia payment: death relief and monetary benefits to the injured
  • Major and minor injuries
  •  Cash doles
  • Government insurance fund
  • Group insurance schemes
  • Claim ratio

Demographics and labour market

  • Geographic pattern of ground motion, spatial array of population and properties at risk, and their risk vulnerabilities.
  • Low population density was a saving grace.
  • Extra fatalities among women
  • Effect on dependency ratio
  • Farming and textiles

Economic Impacts

Economic  Impacts

  • Total damage estimated at around $7 billion. However $18 billion of aid was invested in the Bhuj area.
  • Over 15km of tarmac road networks were completely destroyed.
  • In the economic capital of the Gujarat region, Ahmedabad, 58 multi storey buildings were destroyed, these buildings contained many of the businesses which were generating the wealth of the region.
  • Many schools were destroyed and the literacy rate of the Gujarat region is now the lowest outside southern India.

Impact on GDP

  • Applying ICOR
  • Rs. 99 billion – deduct a third as loss of current value added.
  • Get GDP loss as Rs. 23 billion
  • Adjust for heterogeneous capital, excess capacity, loss Rs. 20 billion.
  • Reconstruction efforts.
  • Likely to have been Rs. 15 billion.

Fiscal accounts

  • Differentiate among different taxes: sales tax, stamp duties and registration fees, motor vehicle tax, electricity duty, entertainment tax, profession tax, state excise and other taxes. Shortfall of Rs. 9 billion of which about Rs. 6 billion unconnected with earthquake.
  • Earthquake related other flows.
  • Expenditure:Rs. 8 billion on relief. Rs. 87 billion on rehabilitation.

Impact on Revenue Continue Reading

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Which countries are most affected by severe seismic activity? New earthquake metric provides fresh perspective

Which countries are most affected by severe seismic activity? New earthquake metric provides fresh perspective

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Which countries are most affected by severe seismic activity? New earthquake metric provides fresh perspective

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  • Largest Covid Vaccine Study Yet Finds Links to Health Conditions

(Bloomberg) -- Vaccines that protect against severe illness, death and lingering long Covid symptoms from a coronavirus infection were linked to small increases in neurological, blood, and heart-related conditions in the largest global vaccine safety study to date.

The rare events — identified early in the pandemic — included a higher risk of heart-related inflammation from mRNA shots made by Pfizer Inc., BioNTech SE, and Moderna Inc., and an increased risk of a type of blood clot in the brain after immunization with viral-vector vaccines such as the one developed by the University of Oxford and made by AstraZeneca Plc. 

The viral-vector jabs were also tied to an increased risk of Guillain-Barre syndrome , a neurological disorder in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the peripheral nervous system.

More than 13.5 billion doses of Covid vaccines have been administered globally over the past three years, saving over 1 million lives in Europe alone. Still, a small proportion of people immunized were injured by the shots, stoking debate about their benefits versus harms.

The new research, by the Global Vaccine Data Network, was published in the journal Vaccine last week, with the data made available via interactive dashboards to show methodology and specific findings. 

Read More: Covid Test Failures Highlight Evolving Relationship With Virus

The research looked for 13 medical conditions that the group considered “adverse events of special interest” among 99 million vaccinated individuals in eight countries, aiming to identify higher-than-expected cases after a Covid shot. The use of aggregated data increased the possibility of identifying rare safety signals that might have been missed when looking only at smaller populations.

Myocarditis , or inflammation of the heart muscle, was consistently identified following a first, second and third dose of mRNA vaccines, the study found. The highest increase in the observed-to-expected ratio was seen after a second jab with the Moderna shot. A first and fourth dose of the same vaccine was also tied to an increase in pericarditis, or inflammation of the thin sac covering the heart. 

Safety Signals

Researchers found a statistically significant increase in cases of Guillain-Barre syndrome within 42 days of an initial Oxford-developed ChAdOx1 or “Vaxzevria” shot that wasn’t observed with mRNA vaccines. Based on the background incidence of the condition, 66 cases were expected — but 190 events were observed. 

ChAdOx1 was linked to a threefold increase in cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, a type of blood clot in the brain, identified in 69 events, compared with an expected 21. The small risk led to the vaccine’s withdrawal or restriction in Denmark and multiple other countries. Myocarditis was also linked to a third dose of ChAdOx1 in some, but not all, populations studied.

Possible safety signals for transverse myelitis — spinal cord inflammation — after viral-vector vaccines were identified in the study. So was acute disseminated encephalomyelitis — inflammation and swelling in the brain and spinal cord — after both viral-vector and mRNA vaccines. 

Listen to the  Big Take  podcast on  iHeart ,  Apple Podcasts ,  Spotify  and the Bloomberg Terminal.  Read the transcript .

Seven cases of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis after vaccination with the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine were observed, versus an expectation of two.  

The adverse events of special interest were selected based on pre-established associations with immunization, what was already known about immune-related conditions and pre-clinical research. The study didn’t monitor for postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome , or POTS, that some research has linked with Covid vaccines.

Exercise intolerance, excessive fatigue, numbness and “brain fog” were among common symptoms identified in more than 240 adults experiencing chronic post-vaccination syndrome in a separate study conducted by the Yale School of Medicine. The cause of the syndrome isn’t yet known, and it has no diagnostic tests or proven remedies.

Read More: Strenuous Exercise May Harm Long Covid Sufferers, Study Shows

The Yale research aims to understand the condition to relieve the suffering of those affected and improve the safety of vaccines, said Harlan Krumholz, a principal investigator of the study, and director of the Yale New Haven Hospital Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation. 

Read this next :  Why Driving a Few Miles Can Save Patients a Fortune on Health Care

“Both things can be true,” Krumholz said in an interview. “They can save millions of lives, and there can be a small number of people who’ve been adversely affected.” 

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A healthcare worker administers a dose of the Novavax Covid-19 vaccine at a pharmacy in Schwenksville, Pennsylvania, US, on Monday, Aug. 1, 2022. Novavax's protein-based Covid-19 vaccine received long-sought US emergency-use authorization in July, but use is likely to be limited.

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